1.

ORIGIN OF COMPLEX CELLS

The structure of the cell wall consists of a glucose polysaccharide as the basic unit, but it is a very large polymer with
many variations and types of attachment. They also contain cellulose, but these microfibrils are isolated from each
other and do not form the strong material.
Some red coral algae also deposit calcium carbonate on their wall. These walls are collected to provide agar or
carrageenan.
Mitochondria are derived from Proteobacteria (eubacteria ) and primary plastids from Cyanobacteria. In some cases
as dinoflagellates all that remains of the endosymbiont are their plastids. Some ALGAE of their cytoplasms also
remain in
1.1 MOST IMPORTANT PHILA OF ALGAE
a. ALGAE WITH CHLOROPLASTS SURROUNDED BY A RE MEMBRANE OUTSIDE ITS ENVELOPE: secondary
endosymbiosis of chloroplast by a protozoan.
● Euglenophyta (euglenoides): ⅔ photosynthetic, ingest prey by phagocytosis. Unicellular mobile by
flagella or twisting. In fresh water from humid areas rich in decomposing organic material.
● Dinophyta (dinoflagellates): are planktonic but some live symbiotically in corals or other animals.
Unicellular, rotating movement, in marine ecosystems.
b. ALGAE WITH CHLOROPLASTS SURROUNDED BY TWO RE MEMBRANES ON EACH SIDE OF ITS
ENVELOPE: secondary endosymbiosis of eukaryotic algae by protozoa.
● Cryptophyta: small. Fresh and marine water, mobile, often endosymbiotic with ciliates or
dinoflagellates. Abundant in cold and deep waters.
● Prymnesiophyta: basal body from which a thread arises. Unicellular, mobile or not.
● Ochrophyta: DIATOMES AND BROWN ALGAE.
c. ALGAE WITH CHLOROPLASTS SURROUNDED BY MEMBRANES OF ITS ENVELOPE: primary
endosymbiosis of cyanobacteria by a protozoan.
● Glaucophyta: fresh water, immobile and unicellular
● Rhodophyta (RED ALGAE): marine, immobile, many are filamentous or multicellular
pseudoparenchymatous.
● Chlorophyta (GREEN ALGAE): freshwater and marine, unicellular and multicellular.

2. MORPHOLOGICAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

Its evolutionary engine was the independence of the aquatic environment to colonize the terrestrial environment
thanks to characteristics such as anabiosis (ability to recover) and the transition from poiquiolohydria (to dry out) to
homeohydra (ability to delay or avoid desiccation)
. Morphological levels are groups classified according to the previous characteristics. There are two classifications:
a. Strasburger's Morphological, from more poikilohydrians to homeohydrians: PROTOPHYTES, TALLOPHYTES,
BRYOPHYTES AND CORMOPHYTES
b. Zimmermann's Evolutionary, according to their evolution. There are ten levels:
● Unicellular and filamentous algae PROKARYOTES
● Flagellate unicellular and EUKARYOTES
● Multicellular by cell association
● Benthic algae (DIATOMEAS) and algae with alternating generations (ISOMORPHIC)
● Primitive land
● plants Transition plants to cormophytes
● winds Heterosporous
● Gymnosperms with spermatic fertilization
● Gymnosperms with tube fertilization of pollen
● Angiosperms
1. PROTOPHYTES
Unicellular PROTOPHYTES that can be grouped in groups or aggregations without clear specialization such as
CENOBIA, COLONIES or CONSORTIA, possible because they are capable of retaining their daughter cells after
bipartition. Depending on the species, they form different patterns and shapes.
They have immobile forms such as COCOIDS or mobile forms such as MONOIDS due to the presence of flagella.
They present polarity due to the distribution of their organelles and their cells are larger.
2. THALLOPHYTES
Multicellular that have a TALLUS in which neither roots, stem, nor leaves can be differentiated, and can be made
up of a single cell or a group of cells arranged in the form of a filament, sheet, etc.
Depending on the type of growth, there are different types of thallus:
HAPLOSTIC, POLYSTIC, SIPHONAL/CENOCYTIC, UNIAXIAL CLADOMA, MULTIAXIAL CLADOMA,
SIPHONOCLADAL and PLEURIDIAN.

There are forms called TALLOIDS that consist of a flattened appearance in the form of a leaf.
Its most complex multicellular form is achieved by the existence of more than two layers of cells in the organism.
There are intercellular connections to join the substrate firmly, to penetrate it as a "root", to form an axis to which
other parts are attached, to provide a transport system that connects the different parts of the plant and to have a
surface to capture light and to have regions exposed for reproduction.

3. BRYOPHYTES/PROTOCORMOPHITES
Mosses (bryones), liverworts and hornworts belong to this group due to their intermediate characters between
thallophytes and cormophytes, since they do not present structures as advanced as cormophytes but are more
evolved than thallus.
They have structures similar to leaves and stems called PHILIDIAS and CAULIDIAS respectively and specialization
in some tissues such as the epidermis.
They are divided into ANTOCEROTAS and HEPATICS and TALLOSAL HEPATICS and BRIONES and FOLIOOUS
HEPATICS.

4. CORMOPHYTES Cormophytes
are the well-known vascular plants that have a vegetative body divided into root, stem and leaves and
differentiated organs made up of tissues.
There are two types for the general classification of plant tissues:
a. MERISTEMATIC TISSUES: regions of continuous cell division and growth. They are the apical meristems
(they form the primary body of the plant), laterals (responsible for growth in thickness or secondary) and
intercalary (areas of primary tissue in active growth).
b. PERMANENT TISSUE:
● DERMAL: covers the plant and can be found in the outer layer of roots, stems, and leaves. It is
responsible for transpiration, gas exchange (stomata) and defense. In woody plants, we find a
PERIDERMIS, a secondary tissue.
● VASCULAR: makes it easier for water, minerals and sugars dissolved in photosynthesis to pass
through the parts of the plant. It is composed of the XYLEM and the PHLOEMA, which are always
adjacent to each other. In the stem they form the "vascular axis" and in the root the "vascular
cylinder".
● FUNDAMENTAL: it is divided into three types according to its cells:
○ Parenchyma: elongated spherical cells with a thin primary wall. It is in charge of
photosynthesis and storage
○ Collenchyma: it is the mechanical sport of stems and new leaves.
○ Sclerenchyma is a dead supporting tissue made up of long fibers or short, crystalline cells.
They support the ancient organs and harden different parts of the plant.
3. ORGANS AND ORGAN SYSTEMS (root, stem and leaves)
Plant tissues form organs and each of them performs specific functions and are grouped to form organ systems.
Vascular plants have two distinct organ systems: a shoot system and a root system. In turn, the shoot system consists
of the vegetative parts (non-reproductive: leaves, stems, root) and the reproductive parts (flowers and fruits).
1. THE ROOT
It is an axial organ whose function is to provide anchorage to the body of the plant to the ground or on various
surfaces, as well as the absorption of water and minerals, storage and communication with other plants. It is the
LATEST EVOLUTIONARY INNOVATION in vegetative anatomy, since new homeohydric plants need a constant supply
of these substances.
● EXTERNAL STRUCTURE
There are AXONOMORPHIC root systems, with a main axis that grows, and FASCICULATED root systems, which
consist of many small roots that start.
In addition, there are three types of roots: the PRIMARY ROOT that originates from the plant, the SECONDARY ROOTS
that originate from the primaries and the TREE ROOTS, which originate from the and sometimes from the leaves.
● INTERNAL STRUCTURE
Making a longitudinal cut, three zones can be distinguished: a MATURATION zone (closest to the start), an Elongation
zone and a CELL DIVISION zone (the “tip” of the root), which occurs around the apical meristem.
The cross section of the root varies depending on whether the plant is dicot or monocot. In the former, the vascular
tissue (xylem and phloem) forms an X while in monocots a ring is formed around the central pith.

❗ MODIFICATIONS
Throughout evolution, the roots underwent modifications giving rise to different types.
Storage roots are bulbous and store starch. In the case of plants such as carrots, turnips and beets, it is used for food
storage.
Aerial roots are those that provide additional support outside the substrate. The epiphytic ones allow the plant to
grow on another plant; contractiles pullthe plant body deeper; and stilt roots, which grow obliquely.
The pneumatophores grow upwards and allow the exchange of oxygen and CO₂ of the plant to increase, as do the
photosynthetic roots with photosynthesis and the nodules and mycorrhizae, which increase the efficiency of nutrient
absorption.

2. THE STEM
It is the axis of the aerial part of the plant and supports the leaves, flowers and fruits. We differentiate the primary
trunk and the secondary stem.
● PRIMARY TRUNK
There are different arrangements of vascular tissues depending on the plant.
The first arrangement called SOLENOSTELA, present in some dicotyledons, is a cylindrical structure arranged
around the medulla. That is, from the inside out, the pith, xylem, phloem, cortex and epidermis.
In EUSTELAS (dicotyledons), the vascular tissue is arranged around the periphery grouped in bundles of xylem
(inwards) and phloem (outwards).
In ATACTOSTELAS (monocots), the clusters of vascular tissues are scattered.
 ● SECONDARY STEM
Two lateral meristems are responsible for the growth of the secondary stem: the VASCULAR CAMBIUM and the
SUBERIGENOUS CAMBIUM.
The vascular cambium is responsible for the bark and wood together with the xylem. The subrigenous, together with
the phelloderm forms the PERIDERM (secondary dermal tissue in woody plants)

❗ MODIFICATIONS
Some species of plants modified their stems or buds to adapt.
Rhizomes are underground stems and grow indefinitely. The stolons are horizontal shoots above the substrate that
serve to communicate organisms. Tubers such as potatoes are thick underground stems found at the tip of the
previous ones.
The tendrils are fine, rope-like structures that allow the plant to cling to surfaces in search of light. It is typical of
climbing plants.
Cladophylls are leaf-like stems in both appearance and function, arise from shoots, and have determinate growth.
The phylloclades are flattened and have indeterminate growth.
Some stem modifications for protection are spines, when they arise from an entire stem, and stingers, formed from
superficial tissues such as the epidermis and bark.

3. THE LEAVES
Many leaves consist of a stalk-like petiole (twig) and a broad, flat blade called a LIMBO. The midrib extends from the
petiole to the tip and contains the main vein from which additional branching veins arise. However, there are many
aspects to take into account when looking at a leaf. These are its arrangement, its complexity, its venation, its margins
and its shapes.
There are different types of phyllotaxis or arrangement of the leaves. They can form a spiral, be opposite and
alternate, opposite and aligned or vertical.

To determine the complexity of a sheet you have to look at several factors. If the leaf blade is not divided, the leaf is
simple. If, on the other hand, the blade is divided into several parts and each of them is inserted into the midrib
of the leaf by a bud, then the leaf is compound. Each of the portions is a LEAFLET.

There are levels depending on whether the hierarchy is simple (1), compound (2), or bipinada (3).
Regarding the venation pattern, there are three types. PARALLEL VENATION (a), typical of monocots where all are
arranged in the same direction and do not intersect; the PINNATE VENATION (b), where there are veins that radiate
from the main vein and other smaller ones that come out of them; and the DICHOTOMOUS VENATION (c) with the
veins coming out of the petiole and dividing in two. In addition to these, there are leaves with PALMATE venation,
where they all come out from a central point, and where the minor veins may or may not cross

. As for the shapes, the margins can be round, serrated with pointed teeth, with rounded teeth, symmetrical, wavy
with a more open wave, more closed, etc.
The shapes of the leaf itself are also as varied, which can be linear, elongated, orbicular (Venus's navel), elliptical... Its
vertex can be round, pointed, obtuse... and its base can be straight, acute, etc.
The fact that a plant is capable of having more than one leaf on its stem is called HETEROPHILY. It is a capacity that
they use to adapt to the environment. For example, the aquatic Rorippa shows a single leaf at 25ºC on the earth's
surface and many branches when submerged in water.
● INTERNAL STRUCTURE
In the leaf we find the dermal tissue in the epidermis, the fundamental tissue that fills the leaf and the vascular tissue
that forms all its veins. These are known as MESOPHYTIC leaves. They are those belonging to plants that are not
found in environments with a lot of water or in environments with little water. They are usually large, flat, and green.
However, over time, the structure of the leaves changed so that the plant could survive in different conditions.

❗ADAPTATIONS
plants live in environments where water is very abundant, so the plant's structure focuses more on permeability and
that it can be afloat than on herbivores not attacking it.
XEROPHITE plants live in dry environments, so these leaves have thick cuticles to limit water loss. It also has a
multiple epidermis to reinforce it.
In addition to water, a factor that influences the development of its structure is the intensity of light received by the
plant. This is why we can distinguish sun leaves, constantly exposed, and shade leaves, with very low light intensities.
SOL leaves are much smaller and thicker, have parenchyma arranged in the form of a "barrier" and much more
vascular tissue.

❗ MODIFICATIONS
Apart from the adaptations seen in the previous section, there are different modifications that the leaves have
undergone during the evolution of this kingdom.
Several examples are storage leaves, thick underground for starch reserves; and the succulent leaves, also called
thickened, which are found on the surface and which are focused on storing water so that the plant thrives in dry and
not very humid climates.
The phyllode is a structure similar to the cladophylliums and phylloclades (in THE STEM ). It is a flattened petiole.
The showy bracts are brightly colored leaves that serve to attract pollinators in angiosperms. In plants such as
carnivores, the leaves have been modified as "traps" to capture insects.
4. REPRODUCTION AND LIFE CYCLES
Most PROKARYOTS organisms reproduce by cell fission, by budding or by fragmentation of cell filaments. For greater
adaptability, prokaryotes transfer genes between them through three mechanisms:
a. CONJUGATION: occurs when a pilus from the donor cell comes into contact with the recipient. Once
attached, this pilus is removed by pulling both cells into direct contact and protein binding. Then, a portion of
the donor chromosome is passed to the recipient cell.
b. TRANSFORMATION: Occurs when a prokaryote takes free DNA from the environment. This DNA could have
been released by a deceased organism, and since it is not chemically stable while outside an organism, it is a
less important mechanism. They can be introduced as a genome or as a plasmid.
c. TRANSDUCTION: when bacteriophages attacking bacteria carry DNA acquired from the previous host.
EUKARYOTES reproduce more slowly, but it also depends on mutation for variation.
There are different methods of reproduction. It can be VEGETATIVE (division of a single cell or fragmentation of a
colony), ASEXUAL (by mobile spores) or SEXUAL (by gametes).
The first two allow for the stability of an adapted genotype within a species from one generation to the next. They are
a fast and cheap means that increase the number of individuals but do not have genetic variability. Sexual
reproduction, however, provides for genetic recombination, but it is more expensive as it wastes unpaired gametes.

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
1. BINARY FISSION/CELL BISECTION: it is the simplest form of reproduction. A parent organism splits into two
identical organisms with the same hereditary information.
2. BUDDING: similar to binary fission. A small part of the stem cell breaks off and begins to grow. When it manages
to be the same size, another individual sprouts again. It can happen an infinite number of times.
3. FRAGMENTATION: more or less random process in which the colonies or filaments are divided into two or
several fragments capable of becoming new individuals.
4. PROPAGULES: A propagule is any material that functions in the propagation of an organism to the next stage
of its life cycle. Often different from parent organism

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
MITOSPORE (asexual spores)
Non-2n germ cells are normally generated by mitosis. Depending on the characteristics of these spores (cells), they
can be classified in two ways.
Due to their motility, PLANOMITOSPORAS are mobile and flagellated, and APLANOMYTOSPORAS are immobile.
Taking into account their origin, SPORANGIOSPORES are those that come from special cells inside structures with
protective layers (such as sporangia for spores) and CONIDIA that grow by conidial filaments on the outside without
being protected.
Taking these criteria into account, there are three types:
1. ZOOSPORES: they are flagellated motiles and can be produced within a parental vegetative cell
2. APLANOSPORAS: flagellate spores that begin their development in the mother cell wall before being
released. They can become zoospores.
3. AUTOSPORES: daughter cells that are released from the broken wall of the mother. Almost perfect replicas.
They cannot become zoospores.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
These eukaryotic organisms have a diploid (2n) phase and a haploid (n) phase. The transition from the diploid to the
haploid phase occurs by meiosis, in which the daughter cells have half the genetic information of the mother cell.
The diploid condition is restored at the time of fertilization, where two n cells unite to form a 2n zygote. Due to this
sexual recombination, sexual organisms create new lineages with new combinations of alleles that are harmful,
unlike asexual organisms, which tend to gain mutant alleles due to genetic drift.
There are three ways of sexual reproduction:
● MEIOSPORAS (haploid sexual spores)
It is produced by two diploid parents, normally sporophytic. Originated by a meiotic division. The specialized
structures of the spores are the sporophytes.
They are called PLANOMEIOSPORAS if they move and APLANOMEIOSPORAS if not. According to their origin, they
are ENDOMEIOSPORAS if they come from a sporangium and EXOMEIOSPORAS if they come from another part of the
sporangium.
● GAMETES
In individuals, haploid gametophytes. There are also some diploid unicellular cells that can achieve meiotic division
to give gametes, the so-called MEIOGAMETES. Depending on the complexity of the gamete, it will be protected or
on the outside.
● SINGAMIA
It is the fusion of n gametes that produces a 2n zygote from which a new organism will develop. There are three
types of syngamy:
1. ISOGAMY: the gametes are identical to each other, with different sexuality. It is the most primitive.
2. Anisogamy: Gametes are slightly different in size. The male is smaller (MICROGRAME) and the female is
larger (MACROGRAME)
3. OOGAMIA: the gametes are very different from each other both in size and function. The female gamete is
VERY LARGE and immobile. the male is much smaller and flagellate.
However, there are special cases in some groups of plants and, sometimes, exclusive to the species.
● HOLOGAMY: the entire individual becomes a gamete, unicellular algae.
● MEROGAMIA: only some cells become gametes.
● GAMETANGIOGAMIA: the gametangia fuse creating a conjugation
● SOMATOGAMIA: a hypha is formed by two monomycotic that unite with a dikaryotic. Ascomycetes and
Basidiomycetes.
● Trichogamy: the female gametes are in a filamentous structure and the male gamete is immobile.
● SIPHONOGAMY: the male gametes are transported through a pollen tube to the female.
SPERMATOPHYTES.
● AUTOGAMY: self-fertilization.
● APOMIXIS: formation of a zygote through a process of sexual reproduction without fertilization. The embryo
is generated from the female gamete or from another cell of the embryo sac. ANGIOSPERMS.

LIFE CYCLES
To classify the life cycles of organisms, two aspects must be taken into account
1. CYTOLOGICAL ALTERNATION OF PHASES
● HAPLONTIC CYCLE: some protists, most algae and some fungi. THE INDIVIDUAL SPENDS THE MAJOR PART OF
HIS LIFE IN HAPLOID FORM. The adult individual n forms gamete n by MITOSIS. When fertilization occurs, a 2n
zygote is formed which, by meiosis, forms a HAPLOID EMBRYO, which will develop into an adult like the first

● DIPLOPHASIC CYCLE: animals, some algae and some fungi. THE INDIVIDUAL SPENDS THE MAJOR PART OF
THE CYCLE IN THE 2n DIPLOID FORM. The moment of meiosis is for the 2n adult to form the n gametes, which
will fertilize generating a 2n zygote and thus, restoring the cycle. It grows to form the 2n embryo that will evolve
into the initial adult
● CYCLE HAPLODIPLOPHASIC: higher plants, ferns and mosses. INDIVIDUALS ALTERNATE GENERATIONS IN
WHICH THEY ARE DIPLOID WITH GENERATIONS IN WHICH THEY ARE HAPLOID.
The adults that form gametes are gametophytes, they are haploid like their gametes. These n gametes meet
and give a 2n zygote which, instead of undergoing meiosis (as in the haplophasic cycle), continues to grow
giving a 2n embryo.
This 2n embryo will generate another different adult, called a sporophyte. The sporophyte will generate n spores
by meiosis (as in the diplophasic cycle) which will grow into an n embryo and eventually give an n adult as at the
beginning.

2. MORPHOLOGICAL ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS

● CYCLE MONOGENETIC: there is only ONE GENERATION that can be haplophasic (n individuals) or diplophasic
(2n individuals).
● DIGENETIC CYCLE: TWO GENERATIONS alternate, that is, in individuals with haplodiplophasic cycles. This cycle
can be ISOMORPHIC if the gametophyte and the sporophyte last the same or HETEROMORPHIC if there is a
reduction of any of them.
● TRIGENETIC CYCLE: IN RED ALGAE and some fungi. THREE GENERATIONS alternate: the DIPLOID
SPOROPHYTE that generates spores that give rise to a HAPLOID GAMETOPHYTE. However, at the time of
fertilization, the motile male gamete fertilizes the female gametangium and not the gamete directly. The result is
the formation of an egg that continues to live on the gametophyte becoming the third generation, a parasitic
generation, called CARPOSPOROPHYTE. The carposporophyte will generate the spores of the first generation.
As the plants evolved, evolutionary trends were created around the cycles, such as the predominance of the 2n
sporophytic phase in the most evolved plants (phenos and vascular plants); the disappearance of mobile phases in spores
and gametes due to the dry environment; protective structures, such as gametocysts and sporangia; and the reduction of
the gametophyte
5. MORPHOLOGY AND REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY
Sex, multiplication and dispersal are the pillars of the evolution of life. The key events were the evolution of spores,
heterospores, seeds, flowers and fruits.
SEXUAL ORGANS
The gametophyte is the structure that bears the sexual organs: the archegonia (female) and the antheridia (male).
Each archegonia stores an egg cell in a multicellular container. Both (structure and gamete) are born from the same
cell, but develop separately due to the opening of the interior walls, producing their differentiation.
In higher plants, the archegonium is usually replaced by another structure called the oogonium.
The appearance of all gametophytes of living plants where the gametophyte is dependent on the sporophyte is that
of small plants or tissues.

In seed plants we can find an evolutionary trend that leads to the reduction of the archegonia, with a layer of cells
that surrounds the central cells.
In the Ginkgo there are no cells in the neck canal, unlike in Ephedra, where there are 40 or more; in cycads there is no
cell wall between the nucleus of the egg cell and the nucleus of the ventral canal, which is shorter.
Three types of gametophytes can be distinguished:
1. Those of the fentos are reduced, thalloid and heart-shaped. They are called prothalluses. They can develop
antheridia or archegonia depending on environmental characteristics (nutrients, competition, light).
2. Alternatively it is a tuber-like structure, normally associated with a fungus.
3. In higher plants, the gametophyte is so small that it develops only endosporically (within the coat).
The antheridium varies greatly between groups, as does the number of sperm produced. In seed plants, the
antheridium is reduced to one or two cells and only two sperm are produced.
In bryophytes, a protonema is a filamentous haploid structure that originates from the germination of meiospores and
that will develop into a gametophyte. The reduction of the protonemal is an advanced evolutionary feature.

DISPERSION
Plants produce spores in the sporangia (organ) which in turn are produced by the sporophyte (diploid individual).
Development of sporangia occurs in two distinct lines: it begins to develop to produce a sterile outer wall, and then,
after a meiotic division, develops into haploid spores.
A large multicellular sporophyte is more complex, so haplodiplophasic heteromorphic alternation is an adaptation for
further specialization.
The spores are produced in four, called tetrads, which separate to be released individually.
The sporangia (reproductive organ) can be of two types: the EUSPORANGI, in more primitive fetuses, originate from
various epidermal cells, have a wall of two or more layers and form a large number of spores. Leptosporangia, in more
evolved fetuses, originate from a single epidermal cell, present a single-layer wall and form a reduced number of spores.

The spores of seed plants are called POLLEN. In most gymnosperms, pollen sacs are found on the surface of special
leaves called microsporophylls. For example, in pine trees, they are found on every scale of their cones.
In angiosperms, the microsporophylls are called stamens. At maturity, the stamens can breach the wall between the
pollen sacs, which are attached to each other in pairs by a filament.
Throughout evolution, different types of plants arose depending on the type of gametophyte that originated the
spores.
At first, all the plants were HOMOSPOROUS, that is, they had well-defined gametophytic and sporophytic
generations, and in them the sporophyte only produced one type of spores that would give rise to a bisexual
gametophyte. All spores are the same.
As they evolved, the spores began to have a sexual function, which is why they became HETEROSPORIOUS plants,
which produce microspores that germinate to give male gametophytes and megaspores that germinate to give
female gametophytes. The two types of spores may or may not be different in size.
1. HETEROTALY: Biological phenomenon characteristic of fungi, organisms with very dark sexuality, which can be
manifested by the existence of two kinds of mycelium whose copulation is essential for the further development
of the plant.
2. ANISOSPORIA: very rare in current plants. In it, there are very large spores with more reserve functions and
smaller spores to facilitate dispersal. It is classified between homosportia and heterosporia.
3. ENDOSPORY: is the retention and development of gametophytes, partially or totally, within the walls of the
generative spore.
.
SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
In seed plants sexual development shows two trends.
One of them for a greater reduction of the sexual organs and their tissues (seen in the reduction of the megasporangium,
the female and male gametophyte seen in the previous section).
The other tendency is based on the recruitment of more layers of tissues external to the sexual cells in their
development (evolution of fertile scales in gymnosperms, for example).

In seed plants or spermatophytes we find the SEMINAL PRIMORDIUM and that is the structure which corresponds to
the macrosporangium. That is to say, it is the structure that contains the female gametophyte or embryonic sac, and
that when it matures will originate the seed; improperly called an ovum.
The seminal primordium has three parts: the integuments (the outer layers), the nucellus (internal part that contains
the embryo sac) and the embryo sac
 a. Flower, perianth, androecium, gynoecium, symmetry, formulas and diagrams
A flower is a structure specialized in reproduction of angiosperm plants. Inside, gametes are formed and ensures the
transfer of pollen, fertilization and development of the seed and fruit. It is a stem of defined growth with modified
leaves called ANTOPHYLLS.
They are formed during the reproductive phase of the life of phanerogamous (seed-bearing vascular) plants.formed
in them Macrospores , followed by microspores or male spores in separate organs on the flower and, finally,
fertilization and embryo development take place. The flower consists of a peduncle (the stalk that joins it to the stem
of the plant) with a receptacle (BRACT) as the base from which the sepals (calyx), petals (corolla) and the carpel,
which contains the stamens ( ANDROECUS), and the pistil (GYNOCEUM) with the stigma, the styles and carpels, the
ovary and the ovules. In addition, they are accompanied by profiles or bracteoles in monocotyledons and
dicotyledons respectively (they are the little leaves that they have on the stem).
If the flower contains a calyx and a corolla, we are talking about having a structure called PERIANT and they are
called heterochlamyds. If it does not present them and tepals appear instead, the flower has a PERIGONIO and they
are called homochlamydeous.
If the flower is symmetrical, it is said to be ACTINOMORPHIC, otherwise it is ZYGOMORPHIC
To indicate that the structures (sepals, petals, stamens, carpels) are welded together, the prefix SIN- (eg, sinpetal) is
used. If they are free, the prefix DIALI- (eg, dialipétala) is used.
However, if the carpels are welded together, the flower is APOCARPIC.
If the ovary is on top of the carpel, this is HYPOGYNOUS. If it is below, it is EPIGENOUS. If it is neither superior nor
inferior, the ovary is semipogynous.
The stamens can be classified by their size relative to each other and relative to the petals.
If they are all the same, they are homodynamous. If they are different they are HETERODYNAMOS. Within the latter
we find didinamos if there are two long and two short stamens; tetradynamous if there are four long and two short
stamens; and we found out if they are all equal.
If they are smaller than the petals they are EVEN, if they are larger they are EXERT.
In addition, the androecium can also join the corolla forming a gynostem or extend above the ovary forming a
gynostem.
The tissue responsible for the opening of the anthers of the stamens for the release of pollen is called
ENDOTHECIUM
c Inflorescences
If the flowers are grouped in a branched axis, then they form an INFLORESCENCE. This appearance is as attractive as
that of a single flower.
There are several types of inflorescences following different criteria.
In closed or cymose inflorescences, the meristem transforms and ends in a terminal flower. Generally this last flower
opens before the others and has a defined growth.
The open or racemose inflorescences continue to produce the floral meristem indefinitely
Due to their complexity, there are simple inflorescences when a flower is born in the axil of each bract of the main
axis and complex inflorescences when, in the axil of each bract, a partial inflorescence is born from which bracteoles
CYMOSE INFLORESCENCES

RACEMOSE INFLORESCENCES
COMPLEX INFLORESCENCES
Its partial inflorescences can be homogeneous or mixed

c FruIts
The fruit starts from the ovary of the flower developed with the seeds formed. The first would become the PERICARP (the
wall of the fruit) and the seeds would be the ovaries. In the already formed fruit, remains of the floral parts such as the
stamens and the perianth can also be distinguished.

PARTHENOCARPIC FRUITS: are those in which no seeds develop or very few appear. Ex: banana, pineapple, seedless
watermelons.
Focusing on the pericarp, it is what gives rise to the dry or fleshy fruits, and this varies depending on whether the ovary of
the flower is superior or inferior, and is divided into exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp.
The exocarp can be smooth (apple), pruinous (with waxes), granular (lemon, tangerine), hairy (kiwi), etc.
The mesocarp can be fleshy like in pears and apples, or corky like tangerines, oranges, lemons... (in segments).
Finally, the endocarp can be stony or juicy. Following a scheme, we can classify the fruits as follows:
1. Fruit derived from a flower
1. Unicarpelar or syncarpic pluricarpe gynoecium
1. Fleshy pericarp
2. Dry pericarp that:
- does not open
- opens at maturity
2. Gynoecium dialycarpelar apocarpic
2. Fruit derived from two or more united flowers

NUTS are classified as INDEHISCENTS, which are those that do not open when ripe, such as corn or pipes and
walnuts; DEHISCENT, open at maturity like legumes (peas); and FRAGMENTABLE, which break down at maturity into
monospermatozoid separated from each other by belts.
COMPLEX FRUITS include other elements of the flower, such as the KNOB, with an inferior ovary; and the ETERIO,
like strawberries, where the thalamus develops externally, forming the edible fleshy body.
We also find the POLYFOLL, with apocarpic ovaries, and POLYDRUPA, where many fleshy bodies are formed on the
same flower and come from a super apocarpic pluricarpelar gynoecium
. INFRUTESCENCES: In an infructescence, the fruits are in a formation where a fruit is attached and contiguous. to
another so that the whole resembles a large fruit. Despite their external appearance of a single fruit, the
infructescences can be recognized by their internal structure.
An example is the fig, where this is not the true fruit, but the fruits are small parts inside called achenes. It is also
worth noting the blackberries.
6. ORIGIN AND DIVERSIFICATION
Within the kingdom of plants, most are angiosperms, followed by gymnosperms, ferns, mosses and algae.
The most important events throughout history for the diversification of organisms, in this case, of plants and fungi, were
the diversification of prokaryotes, leading to the appearance of photosynthetic prokaryotes.
The emergence of eukaryotes to form a multicellular organism led to its appearance.
Later, the embryophytes conquered the terrestrial environment until they reached the variety of today.

7. DIVERSITY: CYANOBACTERIA (photosynthetic)

The prokaryotes studied by botany are cyanobacteria, cyanophytes and blue-green algae, due to their oxygenic
photoautotrophic capacity, their pigments (chlorophyll), their reserve capacity and a gas vacuole. In addition, its
reproduction is by binary fission or fragmentation, although it can also be by spores.
Its cell wall is composed of an outer sheath (which may be external in some genera), a MUREIN cell wall without
cellulose, and a Gram-like cell membrane.
Its internal structure consists of chromatoplasm, colored cytoplasm composed of thylakoids where photosynthetic
pigments are found. It occupies a peripheral position in the cells; and centroplasm, region of the nucleus without a
membrane, DNA without histones, 70S ribosomes, etc.
Heterocytes appearing cells that have cellulose walls surrounded by a thick envelope. It is located in the middle of
the trichome or at one end. They serve to fix atmospheric nitrogen and to divide the trichome into fragments.
An azimete is an elongated cell that accumulates starch and cyanophycin granules as a nitrogen reserve. Functions
as resistance cells or spores and survives in extreme conditions
N2-fixing cyanobacteria are generally the most toxic, and some of the toxins can cause neurological or liver damage.
However, these same ones are used to fertilize rice fields in soils poor in nutrients. They are important in nutrition,
since in the case of Spirulina, they are the organisms with the highest protein content, thus being useful.
They are cosmopolitan, they constitute part of the plankton and they are the FIRST LINK OF THE TROPHIC CHAIN.
They are also important symbionts.

8. DIVERSITY: FUNGI AND LICHENS (non-photosynthetic)

FUNGI
Fungi are non-photosynthetic heterotrophic Eukaryotes (without plastids or chlorophyll) and therefore incapable of
assimilating CO₂, depending for their nutrition on organic carbon sources that they incorporate from abroad.
They are thallophytes. The set of fungal filaments is called mycelium. The filaments are branched and have apical
growth. Each fragment of the mycelium is a hypha. They lack starch.
● TYPES OF TALLUS (bodies/forms of fungi)
There are coenocytic thalluses (without septa or partitions, cellulosic walls without chitin), plasmodials
(multinucleated masses of protoplasm, free-living, crawling, without cell wall) or one or several isolated cells.
Hyphae with septa and communication: ASCOMYCETES AND BASIDIOMYCETES
- PLECTENCHYMES: Loosely intertwined hyphae whose walls are swollen by mucilage and water. They
constitute the fruiting bodies of some fungi (mushrooms)
- PSEUDOPARENCHYMES: formed by compact isodiametric or oval hyphae, giving the tissue a hard
consistency due to lack of water. The hyphae lose their individuality.
- RHIZOMORPHS: agglomerations of hyphae that form branched cords, sometimes meters in length, which
serve to transport substances and as anchorage to the substrate. In higher fungi.
Fungi incorporate nutrients by absorption. All are nourished by water and mineral elements. Phagotrophs ingest solid
particles and lysotrophs release enzymes abroad to act on organic matter, breaking it into simple molecules that
they incorporate by absorption. Saprophytes take advantage of dead animal or plant organisms, soil humus, animal
feces, etc. causing its decomposition. A lysis or enzymatic degradation of the food occurs. They are destroyers of
wood.
Some examples of symbionts are lichens (fungus and algae) and mycorrhizae (fungus with plant roots),
ectomycorrhizae if the mycelium grows around the roots, or endomycorrhizae if it penetrates inside the root cells.
There are also parasites that cause diseases. Some feed directly on living cells and others first destroy the
parasitized cell and then absorb its nutrients.
They are polyphyletic, that is, they do not constitute a natural and homogeneous group, although the phylogenetic
relationships are not fully agreed upon. This is why they appear in three kingdoms: protistas (mucilaginous),
chromistas (phycomycetes) and fungi (true fungi).
a. MUCILAGINOUS: They incorporate bacteria and organic matter for their nutrition. Ex: Acrasiomyces.
b. PHYCOMYCETES (OOMYCOTA): They have a thallus made up of mycelium, which consists of a set of
filamentous hyphae not septate with numerous nuclei and do not form fruiting bodies. The life cycle has a
mobile phase with zoospores.
c. c. TRUE FUNGI: unicellular thallus (as in yeast, Saccharomyces) or complex thallus (hyphal mycelia, typical
mushroom). Depending on the number of nuclei, there are COENOCYTIC HYPHAE with many, DICARYOTIC
HYPHAE with two nuclei and MONOKARYOTIC HYPHAE with a single nucleus.
Its sexual reproduction consists of gametogamy or somatogamy
Gametangiogamy Somatogamy
It occurs between two hyphae of Occurs between two hyphae of opposite
opposite sign (or sex), which come sign (or sex) that approach and join their
together and form gametangia, ends, fusing first their cytoplasms
separated by walls from the rest of the (plasmogamy) and later their nuclei
hypha. (karyogamy)
After the fusion of gametangia, a Plasmogamy and karyogamy can be
resistance zygote (zygospore) is separated in time (dikaryotic hyphae)
generated.

We highlight the Zygomycota in true fungi. Most have coenocytic hyphae. They are haplont, most of their lives are
spent in the haploid phase. They are fundamental in the decomposition processes of organic matter, but they also
cause rot in fruits and cause serious crop losses. Mycorrhizal constituents (seen above, symbionts).
The Ascomycota are mostly terrestrial and are the most numerous group. They present mycelium with septate
hyphae or are unicellular (yeasts). Some groups are responsible for diseases of plants of agricultural interest.
In 95% of the species, only the asexual phase is known. Their sexual reproduction is often by somatogamy or by
gametangial contact. Presence of n+n dikaryotic mycelium (shortly durable). They form from the zygote into
sporangia called asci which produce spores (ascospores) in fruiting bodies or ascocarps.

Due to its great complexity, there are classes and subclasses of Ascomycota.
a. Saccharomycotina or yeast. They produce alcoholic fermentation.
b. Saccharomycotina: Saccharomycetales.genome complete of eukaryotes.
c. Pezizomycotina: Pezizomycetes. They produce ascocarps with asci and ascospores.
d. Pezizomycotina: Sordariomycetes. They are parasitic species of plants that develop structures on their host of
pharmaceutical importance.
e. Perziomycotina: Eurothiomycetes. Fungi with mold-like mycelium. They form conidia on conidiophores.
PRODUCES ANTIBIOTICS LIKE PENICILLIN.
f. BASIDIOMYCOTA. Mycelium formed by septate hyphae. They develop the fruiting body (the mushroom) and
sporangia called basidia that produce basidiospores. It consists of an asexual reproduction by fragmentation,
and a sexual one by somatogamy (fusion of hyphae).mycelium (group of hyphae) dikaryotic is durable.

LICHENS
A lichen is a symbiosis between a fungus and an alga constituting a stable thallus. They are made up of a mycobiont
(responsible for the absorption and metabolism of water and salts) and a photobiont (responsible for photosynthesis
and metabolism of carbohydrates). Some appear to have a third component, a unicellular basidiomycete.
● TYPES OF THALLOS (bodies/forms of the fungus)
a. CRUSTACEANS: strongly adhered to the substratum so that it is impossible to separate them from it. They are
totally or partially embedded and have the capacity to penetrate the rock degrading and starting the
development of the soil.
b. FOLIACEOUS: flattened with a sheet-like appearance that is attached to the substrate at some points.
c. FRUTICULOSUS: branched like a small shrub attached to the substrate by a narrow part
d. COMPOUNDS: made up of 2 parts: a crustaceous or leafy base and an upright fruticulous part.
Lichens consist of the following structure depending on whether the thallus is homogeneous or heterogeneous:
Regarding reproduction, lichens reproduce both asexually and sexually.

Their asexual reproduction is based on fragmentation, where any part can give a new individual, or in the formation
of propagules, which are particular fragments that detach from the stem and generate a new individual. These can
be ISIDIUS if they are thinned at the base or soredia if it is an agglomeration.
The algae in a lichenized state lose their ability to reproduce sexually, so it is the fungus that reproduces sexually and
behaves, from this point of view, like free-living fungi. It is based on the formation of ascocarps, asci and ascospores
due to the abundance of Ascomycetes in these structures. The ascospores must come into contact with the
appropriate alga to generate a new individual.
The importance of lichens ranges from their role in some ecosystems as photosynthesizers to serving as food and
shelter for animals or other unicellular beings. In addition, they are capable of absorbing certain pollutants, and due
to their slow growth, they serve as indicators of it.
9. DIVERSITY: ALGAE (photosynthetic)
Algae do not constitute a natural group, valid from the phylogenetic point of view, but constitute an artificial group
without taxonomic category (polyphyletic origin). They include photoautotrophic organisms linked to aquatic life, at
least in terms of reproduction. They lack roots, stems and leaves and a vascular system and can be unicellular and
multicellular.
They produce the oxygenation of the waters due to photosynthesis with chlorophyll A as the primary pigment. Some
are heterotrophic due to loss of photosynthetic capacity.
The essential character that differentiates algae from the rest of the green plants is that the zygote does not develop
a true multicellular embryo dependent on the mother plant, as occurs in bryophytes and pteridophytes.
Their reserve polysaccharides are very different according to the groups: green algae elaborate true starch inside the
plastids and accumulate lipids in the form of small drops colored by carotenoid pigments; in the red algae the starch
of florídeas, which is extraplastidial (it is made outside the plastids);is synthesized paramyl; in brown algae laminarin
and mannitol; and in chrysolaminarine diatoms.
The cell wall is made up of two components: THE FIBRILAR makes up the skeleton of the wall and is made up of
cellulose in most groups. AMORPH is formed by polysaccharides: alginic acid in brown algae or galactan (agar and
carrageenan) in red algae. In diatoms, for example, hydrated silica may appear.
Regarding its motility, the morphology and arrangement of its flagella can be very diverse. Cyanophyceans and red
algae NEVER have flagella.
In many unicellular algae, vegetative multiplication is of great importance as a general means of perpetuating
populations, sexual reproduction being scarce, but in multicellular algae this is the most frequent.
The general mechanisms of ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION are bipartition, pluribipartition (by fragmentation of the
thallus), the emission of propagules (as in fungi) and reproduction by spores.
Depending on the type of fertilization, in SEXUAL REPRODUCTION we can distinguish isogamy (equal gametes),
anisogamy (female gamete larger than male), oogamy (huge and immobile female gamete, much smaller and more
mobile male gamete) and trichogamy ( immobile female gamete inside a structure that ends in a long tube).
Regarding the generations, they can be gametophytic or sporophytic and is usually represented by independent
isomorphic or heteromorphic individuals (see in previous points)
The different pigments of the algae are what allow light to be captured at different depths in the sea. Thus, green
algae can only live at shallow depths because chlorophyll mainly captures the red color. The brown algae are
located between 5 and 15 meters absorbing blue radiation. Red algae absorb blue and green radiation thanks to
phycobiliproteins and for this reason they are the algae that reach the greatest depth (more than 150 m in very
transparent water).
Algae are important builders of the benthic seascape. They produce large amounts of biomass and are a source of
food and shelter for many animals. Some algae have been introduced into seas or rivers, where they enter into
competition with native species and alter the natural balance of the populations, that is, they are invasive.
Along with fungi, they form LICHENIC SYMBIOSIS, but there are also others such as zooxanthellae and cnidarians,
where these constitute corals and algae take advantage of their waste while algae stimulate calcification of the
colony and provide them with oxygen.

1. MOST IMPORTANT FILES OF

1. ALGAE DINOPHYTA (DINOFLAGELLATES): photosynthetic unicellular algae, but approximately half lose their
plastids and are obligate heterotrophs and feed on bacteria. They have chloroplasts with chlorophyll A and C and
carotenoids, and their reserve polysaccharide is starch. They reproduce asexually by bipartition and few cases of
sexual reproduction are known. They are the first link in the trophic chain.
They are responsible for the so-called RED TIDES, which are large proliferations of dinoflagellates and are
produced by changes in environmental conditions (eg, change in T). They are not all of this color, some may be
brown, yellowish, or greenish, depending on the species.
Some excrete toxins that can cause the death of marine organisms, such as fish or filter-feeding bivalves (acquired
by phytoplankton absorption), and can even affect humans.
2. EUGLENOPHYTA: unicellular algae comprising monadal forms (flagellates that after division may remain together
in colonies). Most are freshwater and have a deep green color
3. OCHROPHYTA: there are all levels of organization. They have a golden brown color and heteroconta flagellated
cells (2 flagella, one smooth and the other with hairs). Another pigment apart from chlorophyll is FUCOXANTHIN,
which gives them their appearance.
a. PHAEOPHYTA: all are multicellular and of all sizes. Its reserve substance is LAMINARIN. They present types of
stems, among which we find stems simpleThey are builders of "Kelp forests" and are a strong food for marine
animals. They are also great invaders, with great growth and efficient dispersal, preventing the penetration of
light to depth. On the other hand, they serve as food and fertilizers, in cosmetics, in the pharmaceutical
industry, etc.
4. BACILLARIOPHYCEAE (DIATOMEAS): they are unicellular algae, mostly phytoplanktonic, but there are also benthic
ones (fixed to a substrate). They have rigid cell walls called FRUSTLES made up of hydrated silica dioxide and two
theca (plates). When they die, they accumulate on the bottom forming large deposits, diatomaceous earth.
Its asexual reproduction by bipartition consists of the opening of the diatom by the theca, separating them and
regenerating another theca in both daughter cells called hypotheca. The size progressively decreases with each
generation until reaching a point at which sexual reproduction must be triggered.
IT IS THE MOST ABUNDANT AND IMPORTANT GROUP IN THE TROPHIC CHAIN. AND IT HAS A FUNDAMENTAL
ROLE IN CO2 CAPTURE. Two groups are distinguished depending on whether their symmetry is radial or bilateral
5. . RHODOPHYTA(RED ALGAE): includes mostly filamentous forms and faint sheets, but the thallus are very complex.
They are mostly marine and abundant in warm climates. As a reserve polysaccharide they present starch from
florídeas. THEY ARE THE ONLY ALGAE THAT PRESENT TRIGENETIC CYCLES.
Its cell walls have cellulose and mucilage that serve to bind the cells together and compact the thallus. Agar and
carrageenan are obtained from the mucilage, with multiple industrial uses, being useful as fertilizer, food,
emulsifiers, for the production of gels, for the external capsule of some medicines, etc.
They form the FUNDS OF MAËL by accumulation. Its function is to constitute a hard and complex substrate to favor
the settlement of numerous species. At present they are threatened by pollution, for which reason they are
protected by the EU
6. CHLOROPHYTA (GREEN SEAWEED): cell walls of cellulose and with chlorophyll A and B. They also present
ß-carotenes. Its reserve product is intraplastidial starch in addition to various pyrotenoids.
Most are found in inland waters, the rest are marine. Endosymbiont zooxanthellae in cnidarians belong here.
There are two orders within the chlorophytas. The VOLVOCALES constitute colonies united by mucilage. At Volvox,
for example, they reach a large size.
Only the cells inside multiply, those outside move. This transforms them into a CASI multicellular individual. The
ULVALES are algae with solid, filamentous, tubular or laminar thalluses. Ulva, for example, is found on rocky shores.
7. STREPTOPHYTA: It is considered that the evolutionary line of land plants arose from them. They present
chlorophyll A and B and intraplastidial starch. Its mitoses are open and its cytokinesis through phragmoplast (wall).
Its cells have 2 subapical insertion flagella. They live mostly in inland waters.
There are four orders of which two stand out. The Zygnematales (the filamentous ones of the practices with little
rectangles that formed zygotes) reproduce by conjugation. The Coleochaetales are those that could be considered
ancestors of terrestrial plants. They form flat disks on the surface of stones. They are freshwater.
10, KINGDOM PLANTAE: bryophytes and pteridophytes (ferns)
The transition to the terrestrial environment from green algae to plants represents a fundamental change on the
planet and allowed the appearance of the terrestrial environment in which new groups of plants and animals

BRYOPHYTA (bryophytes ): includes the first plants that colonized terrestrial ecosystems. It presents alternating
diploid and haploid phases. They are liverworts, mosses and hornworts

Mosses are pioneers, they are responsible for fixing soil and maintaining moisture. Frequent in all latitudes except
Antarctica.
Sphangus are part of the tundra, their pH is acidic and they are found in dry climates
HEPATIC TALLOSAN ANTOCEROTA

PTERIDOPHYTES (VASCULAR PLANTS BUT WITHOUT SEEDS): with a great diversity of species and forms, from
herbaceous to arborescent. They present an underground stem (rhizome) and fronds (leaves) with sori (each sori is a
group of sporangia with spores)
They can be HOMOSPOROUS if they have a single type of spores (masc antheridia and fem archegonia in the same
structure) or HETEROSPOROUS if they are differentiated. The female spores will form female prothalluses and the
male spores will form male prothalluses.
This step is essential for the development of future angiosperms and gymnosperms. Thus, the male spores will give
rise to pollen grains and the female spores to the embryonic sac.
11. GYMNOSPERMS: with seeds and flowers
With gymnosperms, seeds appear for the first time in evolution, together with the increase of the sporophyte
compared to the gametophyte, the latter being dependent on the former. Despite developing in an aerial/terrestrial
environment, the embryo has a liquid environment (it is comparable to an amniotic egg).
The mother plant provides the aqueous medium if the male reproductive cell must swim to reach the female. In
seeds, in addition to avoiding desiccation, the embryo is retained in the maternal organism, avoiding predation until
the new organism can live independently.
Other advantages are dispersion improvements or the ability to survive unfavorable periods.
They are heterospore. The male sporangia (pollen sacs) will be on the scales of the male cones (smaller, at the end
of the branches).
They will give rise to microspores that, surrounded by protective covers, will constitute the pollen grains. Within the
grain, the microspore will divide by mitosis, forming the male gametophyte from which the gametes will be
generated.

The female ones (nucela) will be found in the seminal primordia (structure) of the female cones (pine cones).
A single megaspore mother cell will generate four female spores of which only one will develop the female
gametophyte called the embryo sac. In this embryonic sac, archegonia will be produced that will generate
oospheres (GF)
After pollination (wind), the pollen grain (male GF) reaches the micropyle and its gametes fertilize the female gamete
to form the zygote, always within the ovule. This grows to form the embryo, and develop the seed. Remaining
attached to the sporophyte and feeding on it is an important advantage
12. ANGIOSPERMS: with seeds, with flowers (dicotyledons and monocotyledons)
MONOCOTYLEDONS: one cotyledon in the seed, parallel leaf veins, diffuse vascular axes, fasciculated roots,
trimerous flowers ( the number of elements, whether they are petals and sepals as tepals, is a multiple of three).
DICOTYLEDONS: two cotyledons in the seed, reticular veins, circular vascular axes, axial roots, tetrameric or
pentameric flowers.
1. ORDER POALES
a. POACEAE: annual or perennial herbs, stem in knots, long and hollow. Eg, CANAS. To feed the grass,
in savannahs and meadows. Its flowers have two small pieces that protect the sexual organs up to
the floral opening.
b. LEGUMINOSAE: legumes. Divided leaves, pentameric flowers, androecium with 10 stamens, 1
carpel. They constitute toxos, xestas, carqueixas. Important symbiotic relationships with N₂-.
c. FAGACEAS: Trees or shrubs pollinated by the wind. Simple and reduced perianth, little showy.
Unisexual flowers of monoecious distribution (with masc and fem on the same plant but not
together as an androgyne). Ex: oaks, holm oak, beech.
2 ORDER FAGALES
a. BETULACEAE: hazelnut
3 ORDER ERICALES
a. ERICACEAE: woody, perennial, adapted to acid soils. Leaves simple, alternate and opposite or
whorled. HERMAPHRODITIC FLOWERS, tetra or pentamerous. Welded parts. Eg, cranberry, heather.
They form thickets.
4 ORDER ASTERALES
a. ASTERACEAE: inflorescences, pentamerous flowers, welded corolla. Flowers sitting on a platform
surrounded by a cluster of bracts. They can be ligated, tubular (daisy). Chalice often transformed
(eg, pipe). 5 welded stamens, inferior gynoecium with two welded carpels (eg, dandelion)
In angiosperms, the reduction in gametophytic generation and double fertilization result in more efficient
reproduction, which has led to superiority when it comes to compete with gymnosperms.
The embryos are enclosed in a protective structure that is the seed. The seeds do not appear naked, but are located
inside a protective structure, the fruit, which originates from the carpel wall.
Pollination is the process that begins with the opening of the anthers, the exit of the pollen, its transport to the flower
and its capture by the stigmas of the pistil. There are different types: ALLOGAMY occurs between flowers of different
individuals. AUTOGAMY takes place between flowers of the same individual, either within the
same flower or between different flowers.
There are mechanisms in some plants that prevent autogamy and for this there is a separation in time or space in
terms of the development of male and female organs. Se denominan DICOGAMIA cuando los estambres y estigmas
de una misma flor alcanzan la madurez para la polinización en épocas distintas y HERCOGAMIA cuando las anteras y
estigmas de una misma flor están muy separados físicamente entre sí.
En cuanto a los tipos de polinización según el mecanismo, existe la ANEMÓGAMA (por el viento, las flores no son
atractivas ni llamativas porque no lo necesitan, las flores se disponen en los extremos de las ramas para estar más
expuestas al viento), la HIDROFILIA (por agua en plantas acuáticas) y la ZOOFILIA (por animales, ya sean insectos o
pájaros, está asociada a la alimentación de los propios animales, solo se produce cuando visita la flor con
regularidad durante bastante tiempo, en flores atractivas y llamativas)