Plant Kingdom – Plantae

Kingdom Plantae includes all the plants. They are eukaryotic, multicellular and autotrophic organisms. The plant cell
contains a rigid cell wall. Plants have chloroplast and chlorophyll pigment, which is required for photosynthesis.

Characteristics of Kingdom Plantae

The plant kingdom has the following characteristic features:

1. They are non-motile.

2. They make their own food and hence are called autotrophs.
3. They reproduce asexually by vegetative propagation or sexually.
4. These are multicellular eukaryotes. The plant cell contains the outer cell wall and a large central vacuole.
5. Plants contain photosynthetic pigments called chlorophyll present in the plastids.
6. They have different organelles for anchorage, reproduction, support and photosynthesis.

Classification of Kingdom Plantae

A plant kingdom is further classified into subgroups. Classification is based on the following criteria:

1. Plant body: Presence or absence of a well-differentiated plant body. E.g. Root, Stem and Leaves.
2. Vascular system: Presence or absence of a vascular system for the transportation of water and other
substances. E.g. Phloem and Xylem.
3. Seed formation: Presence or absence of flowers and seeds and if the seeds are naked or enclosed in a
fruit.

The plant kingdom has been classified into five subgroups according to the above-mentioned criteria:

1. Thallophyta
2. Bryophyta
3. Pteridophyta
4. Gymnosperms
5. Angiosperms

1. Thallophyta
Thallophytes lack a well-differentiated body structure and the plant body is thallus like. Thallophyta includes plants
with primitive and simple body structures. The plant body is thallus, they may be filamentous, colonial, branched or
unbranched. Examples include green algae, red algae and brown algae. Common examples are Volvox, Fucus,
Spirogyra, Chara, Polysiphonia, Ulothrix, etc.

2. Bryophyta
Bryophytes do not have vascular tissues. The plant body has root-like, stem-like and leaf-like structures. Bryophytes
are terrestrial plants but are known as “amphibians of the plant kingdom” as they require water for sexual
reproduction. They are present in moist and shady places. Bryophyta includes mosses, hornworts and liverworts.
Some of the common examples are Marchantia, Funaria, Sphagnum, Antheoceros, etc.

3. Pteridophyta
Pteridophytes have a well-differentiated plant body into root, stem and leaves. They have a vascular system for the
conduction of water and other substances. Some of the common examples are Selaginella, Equisetum, Pteris, etc.

4. Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms have a well-differentiated plant body and vascular tissues. They bear naked seeds, i.e. seeds are not
enclosed within a fruit. Some of the common examples of gymnosperms are Cycas, Pinus, Ephedra, etc

5. Angiosperms
Angiosperms are seed-bearing vascular plants with a well-differentiated plant body. The seeds of angiosperms are
enclosed within the fruits. Angiosperms are widely distributed and vary greatly in size, e.g. Wolffia is small
measuring about 0.1 cm and Eucalyptus trees are around 100 m tall. Angiosperms are further divided into
monocotyledons and dicotyledons according to the number of cotyledons present in the seeds. Some of the
common examples are mango, rose, tomato, onion, wheat, maize, etc.
 Kingdom Animalia
Kingdom Animalia constitutes all animals. Amongst the five kingdoms, the largest kingdom is the animal kingdom.
Animals are multicellular eukaryotes. However, like plants, they do not possess chlorophyll or a cell wall. Therefore,
members of the animal kingdom exhibit a heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Kingdom Animalia has been classified into
ten different subphyla based on their body design or differentiation.
The different phylum of the animal kingdom are as follows:

1. Porifera
2. Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
3. Platyhelminthes
4. Nematoda
5. Annelida
6. Arthropoda
7. Mollusca
8. Echinodermata
9. Hemichordata
10. Chordata

1. Phylum Porifera
Porifera means organisms with holes. They are commonly known as Sponges. Features of the poriferan are:

1. Non-motile, multicellular organisms with a hard outer skeleton.

2. Have a porous body.
3. Pores on the bodies create a canal system which helps in the circulation of substances.
4. Not differentiated into head and tail; do not have a well-developed organ or organ system.
5. Include marine habitat.

2. Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

The term Coelenteratais derived from the Greek word “kilos” which means hollow-bellied. Their features are:

1. Have a hollow body cavity.

2. The body is differentiated into two ends.
3. Includes all aquatic animals.
4. The body is made of two layers of cells: inner and outer linings.
5. Live in colonies (corals) as well as solitary (Sea anemone).

3. Phylum Platyhelminthes
Platyhelminthes are commonly known as flatworms. Their features are:

1. Dorsoventrally flattened body.

2. Complex and have differentiated body structure.
3. Tissues are differentiated from three layers of cells and are triploblastic.
4. Do not have a true internal cavity or coelom.
5. Have bilateral symmetry.
6. Either free-living (Planaria) or parasitic (liver flukes).

4. Phylum Nematoda
Phylum Nematoda consists of nematodes or roundworms. Their features are:

1. Nematodes have a cylindrical body.

2. Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
3. Have pseudocoelom, a false body cavity.
4. Parasitic and causes diseases such as elephantiasis, ascariasis.5

5. Phylum Annelida
Annelids are commonly known as segmented or ringed worms. They have the following features:

1. Have a segmented cylindrical body.

2. The body is differentiated into head and tail.
3. Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
4. Have a true body cavity.
5. Habitat: marine, freshwater and land.
 6. Phylum Arthropoda
Arthropod means jointed legs. Animals which have jointed appendages belong to this phylum. This is the largest
phylum in the animal kingdom. Other features are:

1. They are bilaterally symmetrical.

2. Have jointed appendages, exoskeleton and a segmented body.
3. Have well-differentiated organ and organ system.
4. Have an open circulatory system, but do not have differentiated blood vessels.

7. Phylum Mollusca
Phylum Mollusca consists of a large group of animals. Features are:

1. Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.

2. Less segmented body.
3. Well-developed organ and organ system.
4. Typically, open circulatory system.
5. Limbs are present.

8. Phylum Echinodermata
The term Echinodermata is derived from the Greek words, echinos meaning hedgehog and derma meaning skin.
Thus, echinoderms are spiny-skinned animals.

1. Radial symmetry and triploblastic.

2. Have true coelom.
3. Have hard calcium carbonate skeleton structure.
4. Free-living marine animals.

9. Phylum Hemichordata
The characteristics of phylum Hemichordata are as follows:

1. The body is soft, fragile, and divided into a proboscis.

2. The epidermis is single-layered.
3. It comprises worm-like marine animals with an organ-system level of organization.
4. They have an open circulatory system.
5. They respire through gills since they are marine.
6. They have separate sexes and external fertilization is seen.
7. Development is direct.

10. Phylum Chordata

The Chordates possess the following characteristics:

1. They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic with an organ-system level of classification.

2. They possess a notochord and a nerve cord.
3. The circulatory system is closed type.

Phylum Chordata can be divided into the following sub-phyla:

 Urochordata
 Cephalochordata
 Vertebrata
 Kingdom Monera
Kingdom Monera belongs to the prokaryote family. The organisms belonging to this kingdom do not contain a true
nucleus. These are the oldest known microorganisms on earth. Their DNA is not enclosed within the nucleus.
They are unicellular organisms found mostly in a moist environment. They are found in hot springs, snow, deep
oceans, or as parasites in other organisms.
The monerans do not possess any membrane-bound organelles.
Let us go through the kingdom monera notes to explore the characteristics and classification of monera.

Characteristics of Monera
The important characteristics of Monera are mentioned below:
1. The Monerans are unicellular organisms.
2. They contain 70S ribosomes.
3. The DNA is naked and is not bound by a nuclear membrane.
4. It lacks organelles like mitochondria, lysosomes, plastids, Golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum, centrosome,
etc.
5. They reproduce asexually by binary fission or budding.
6. The cell wall is rigid and made up of peptidoglycan.
7. Flagellum serves as the locomotory organ.
8. These are environmental decomposers
9. They show different modes of nutrition such as autotrophic, parasitic, heterotrophic, or saprophytic.

Bacteria
Bacteria are microscopic organisms that can survive in diverse environments. They can be beneficial as well as
harmful. They possess a simple structure without a nucleus and a few cell organelles.
The bacteria are surrounded by two protective coverings- the outer cell wall and the inner cell membrane. Some
bacteria are also covered by a capsule. Few bacteria like Mycoplasma do not have a cell wall.
Short whip-like extensions known as pili surround the surface of the bacteria. The long whip-like structures are
known as flagella.
They exhibit autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition. Autotrophic bacteria derive nutrition from inorganic
substances. They derive carbon and hydrogen from atmospheric carbon dioxide, H2, H2S, and NH3. The
heterotrophic bacteria depend upon external organic materials for their food. These can be saprotrophs, parasites
and symbionts.

Bacterial Shape
Bacteria possess the following different shapes:
Cocci- Bacteria are spherical or oval in shape. These can be micrococcus (single), diplococcus (in pairs),
tetracoccus (in fours), streptococcus (in chains), and staphylococcus (in clusters like grapes)
Bacilli- These are rod-shaped bacteria with or without flagella.
Vibrios- These are comma or kidney-shaped small bacteria with flagella at one end.
Spirillum- These are spiral or coiled shaped. They are rigid forms due to the spiral structure and bear flagella at one
or both the ends.
Filament- The body consists of small filaments like fungal mycelia.
Stalked- The bacterium possesses a stalk.
Budded– The body of the bacterium is swollen at places
Classification of Monera
Kingdom Monera is classified into three sub-kingdoms- Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Cyanobacteria.

Archaebacteria
 These are the most ancient bacteria found in the most extreme habitats such as salty area (halophiles), hot
springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens).
 The structure of the cell wall is different from that of the other bacteria which helps them survive in extreme
conditions.
 The mode of nutrition is autotrophic.
 The nucleotide sequences of its t-RNA and r-RNA is unique.

Eubacteria
 Eubacteria are also known as “true bacteria”.
 The cell wall is rigid and made up of peptidoglycans.
 It moves with the help of flagella.
 A few bacteria contain short appendages on the cell surface, known as pili which help the bacteria during
sexual reproduction. Pili also helps a pathogen to attach to the host.
 They are divided into two categories; gram-positive and gram-negative, depending upon the nature of the
cell wall and the stain they take.
 Rhizobium and Clostridium are two eubacteria.

Cyanobacteria
 These are also known as blue-green algae.
 These bacteria are photosynthetic in nature.
 They contain chlorophyll, carotenoids and phycobilins.
 They are found in the aquatic region.
 Some of these even fix atmospheric nitrogen.
 Nostoc, Anabaena, Spirulina are some cyanobacteria.
Monerans are very useful organisms. They enrich the soil and serve as an important part of the nitrogen cycle. They
are also helpful in the production of some food items and antibiotics. Methanogens play an important role in the
treatment of sewage. Many organisms rely on archaebacteria as the source of food.

Kingdom Fungi
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts, moulds and mushrooms. These
organisms are classified under kingdom fungi.
The organisms found in Kingdom fungi contain a cell wall and are omnipresent. They are classified as heterotrophs
among the living organisms.
To name a few – the appearance of black spots on bread left outside for some days, the mushrooms and the yeast
cells, which are commonly used for the production of beer and bread are also fungi. They are also found in most
skin infections and other fungal diseases. Fungi usually grow in places which are moist and warm enough to support
them.
The structure of fungi can be explained in the following points:

1. Almost all the fungi have a filamentous structure except the yeast cells.
2. They can be either single-celled or multicellular organisms.
3. Fungi consist of long thread-like structures known as hyphae. These hyphae together form a mesh-like
structure called mycelium.
4. Fungi possess a cell wall which is made up of chitin and polysaccharides.
5. The cell wall comprises a protoplast, which is differentiated into other cell parts such as cell membrane,
cytoplasm, cell organelles and nuclei.
6. The nucleus is dense, clear, with chromatin threads. The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear membrane

Classification of Fungi
Kingdom Fungi are classified based on different modes. The different classification of fungi is as follows:

Based on Mode of nutrition

On the basis of nutrition, kingdom fungi can be classified into 3 groups.

1. Saprophytic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by feeding on dead organic substances.
Examples: Rhizopus, Penicillium and Aspergillus.
2. Parasitic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by living on other living organisms (plants or animals) and absorb
nutrients from their host. Examples: Taphrina and Puccinia.
3. Symbiotic – These fungi live by having an interdependent relationship with other species in which both are
mutually benefited. Examples: Lichens and mycorrhiza. Lichens are the symbiotic association between
algae and fungi. Here both algae and fungi are mutually benefited as fungi provide shelter for algae and in
reverse algae synthesis carbohydrates for fungi. Mycorrhiza is the symbiotic association present between
fungi and plants. Fungi improve nutrient uptake by plants, whereas, plants provides organic molecules like
sugar to the fungus.

Based on Spore Formation

Kingdom Fungi are classified into the following based on the formation of spores:

1. Zygomycetes – These are formed by the fusion of two different cells. The sexual spores are known as
zygospores, while the asexual spores are known as sporangiospores. The hyphae are without the
septa. Example – Mucor.
2. Ascomycetes – They are also called sac fungi. They can be coprophilous, decomposers, parasitic or
saprophytic. The sexual spores are called ascospores. Asexual reproduction occurs by conidiospores.
Example – Saccharomyces.
3. Basidiomycetes – Mushrooms are the most commonly found basidiomycetes and mostly live as parasites.
Sexual reproduction occurs by basidiospores. Asexual reproduction occurs by conidia, budding or
fragmentation. Example- Agaricus.
4. Deuteromycetes – They are otherwise called imperfect fungi as they do not follow the regular reproduction
cycle as the other fungi. They do not reproduce sexually. Asexual reproduction occurs by conidia. Example
– Trichoderma.

Reproduction in Fungi
Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means. The sexual mode of reproduction is referred to as
teleomorph and the asexual mode of reproduction is referred to as anamorph.
Vegetative reproduction in fungi –This takes place by budding, fission and fragmentation.
Asexual reproduction – This takes place with the help of spores called conidia or zoospores, or sporangiospores.
Sexual reproduction – This occurs by ascospores, basidiospores, and oospores.
The conventional mode of sexual reproduction is not always observed in the kingdom Fungi. In some fungi, the
fusion of two haploid hyphae does not result in the formation of a diploid cell. In such cases, there appears an
intermediate stage called the dikaryophase. This stage is followed by the formation of diploid cells
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Uses of Fungi
Fungi are one of the most important groups of organisms on the planet as they play a vital role in the biosphere and
have great economic importance on account of both their benefits and harmful effects.
Following are some of the important uses of fungi:
 1. Recycling – They play a major role in recycling the dead and decayed matter.
2. Food – The mushrooms species which are cultured are edible and are used as food by humans.
3. Medicines – There are many fungi that are used to produce antibiotics and to control diseases in humans
and animals. Penicillin antibiotic is derived from a common fungus called Penicillium.
4. Biocontrol Agents – Fungi are involved in exploiting insects, other small worms and help in controlling
pests. Spores of fungi are used as a spray on crops.
5. Food spoilage – Fungi play a major role in recycling organic material and are also responsible for major
spoilage and economic losses of stored food.

Examples of Fungi
Following are the common examples of fungi:

 Yeast
 Mushrooms
 Moulds
 Truffles

Kingdom Protists
Protists are simple eukaryotic organisms that are neither plants nor animals or fungi. Protists are unicellular in
nature but can also be found as a colony of cells. Most protists live in water, damp terrestrial environments or even
as parasites.
The term ‘Protista’ is derived from the Greek word “protistos”, meaning “the very first“. These organisms are usually
unicellular and the cell of these organisms contains a nucleus which is bound to the organelles. Some of them even
possess structures that aid locomotion like flagella or cilia.
Scientists speculate that protists form a link between plants, animals and fungi as these three kingdoms diverged
from a common protist-like ancestor, billions of years ago. Though this “protists-like” ancestor is a hypothetical
organism, we can trace some genes found in modern animals and plants to these ancient organisms.
Therefore, these organisms are traditionally considered the first eukaryotic forms of life and a predecessor to plants,
animals and fungi.

Characteristics of Kingdom Protista

The primary feature of all protists is that they are eukaryotic organisms. This means that they have a membrane-
enclosed nucleus. Other characteristic features of Kingdom Protista are as follows:

1. These are usually aquatic, present in the soil or in areas with moisture.
2. Most protist species are unicellular organisms, however, there are a few multicellular protists such as kelp.
Some species of kelp grow so large that they exceed over 100 feet in height. (Giant Kelp).
3. Just like any other eukaryote, the cells of these species have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
4. They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in nature. An autotrophic organism can create its own food and
survive. A heterotrophic organism, on the other hand, has to derive nutrition from other organisms such as
plants or animals to survive.
5. Symbiosis is observed in the members of this class. For instance, kelp (seaweed) is a multicellular protist
that provides otters, protection from predators amidst its thick kelp. In turn, the otters eat sea urchins that
tend to feed on kelp.
6. Parasitism is also observed in protists. Species such as Trypanosoma protozoa can cause sleeping
sickness in humans.
7. Protists exhibit locomotion through cilia and flagella. A few organisms belonging to the kingdom Protista
have pseudopodia that help them to move.
8. Protista reproduces by asexual means. The sexual method of reproduction is extremely rare and occurs only
during times of stress.

Classification of Protista
Kingdom Protista is classified into the following:

Protozoa
Protozoans are unicellular organisms. Historically, protozoans were called “animal” protists as they are heterotrophic
and showed animal-like behaviours.
There are also parasitic protozoans which live in the cells of larger organisms. Most of the members do not have a
predefined shape. For instance, an amoeba can change its shape indefinitely but a paramecium has a definite
slipper-like shape. The most well-known examples of protozoans are amoeba, paramecium, and euglena. Unlike
other members of this group, euglena is a free-living protozoan that has chlorophyll, which means it can make its
own food.
The protozoans can be divided into four major groups:

1. Amoeboid protozoans – Mostly found in water bodies, either fresh or saline. They have pseudopodia (false
feet) which help to change their shape and to capture and engulf food. E.g. Amoeba.
2. Flagellated protozoans – As the name suggests, the members of this group have flagella. They can be
free-living as well as parasitic. E.g. Euglena.
3. Ciliated protozoans – They have cilia all over their body which help in locomotion as well as nutrition. They
are always aquatic. E.g. Paramecium.
4. Sporozoans – These organisms are so-called because their life cycle has a spore-like stage. For example,
the malarial parasite, Plasmodium.

Slime Moulds
Slime moulds are saprophytic organisms (they feed on dead and decaying matter). These are tiny organisms that
have many nuclei.
Usually, Slime moulds are characterized by the presence of aggregates called plasmodium and are even visible to
the naked eye.

Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates and Euglenoids

These form another category under kingdom Protista. These are generally single-celled or multicellular organisms.
These are photosynthetic, found mostly in freshwater sources or marine lakes. They are characterized by a stiff cell
wall.
Example of chrysophytes include diatoms and golden algae. They are characterised by the presence of a hard
siliceous cell wall. Diatomaceous earth is formed due to the accumulation of cell wall deposits. They are
photosynthetic organisms.
Dinoflagellates are photosynthetic and found in various different colours, according to the pigment present in them.
They show bioluminescence and known to cause red tide.
Euglenoids are the link between plants and animals. They lack a cell wall but perform photosynthesis. In the
absence of sunlight, they act as a heterotroph and feed on small organisms. The outer body covering is a protein-
rich layer known as a pellicle. E.g. Euglena, Trachelomonas, etc.

Economic Importance of Protists

 Protists serve as the foundation of the food chain.
 Protists are symbionts – having a close relationship between two species in which, one is benefited.
 Some protists also produce oxygen and may be used to produce biofuel.
 Protists are the primary sources of food for many animals.
 In some rare cases, Protists are harvested by humans for food and other industrial applications.
 Phytoplankton is one of the sole food sources for whales
 Seaweed is an alga, which is considered a plant-like protist.
 Zooplankton is fed on by various sea creatures including shrimp and larval crabs.