NOTES FOR GEN.

BIO 2

KINGDOM FUNGIA (FUNGI KINGDOM)

General Characteristics:
– made up of eukaryotic cells/multi-cellular in nature
– grow as tubular filaments called hyphae, and an interwovwn mass of hyphae is called mycelium
– Their cell walls are made up of cellulose and peptidoglycan but are strengthened by chitin
– they are non-photosynthetic because they do not have chloroplasts or chlorohyll
– they are heterotrophic (dependent on other organisms for food) some as saprophytes: getting
nourishment from the surrounding by releasing enzymes for decomposition or recycling of
materials; others form a symbiotic relationship with other organisms such as the mycorrhiza –
an association between a fungus and the roots of a plant. The plant benefits from the nitrates and
phosphates given by the fungus while the fungus benefits from the sugars and waters from the
root of the plant; some are parasitic and causes disease to plants, animals and man while some
fungi are both symbionts of their plant hosts while parasitic to the soil insects.
– They reproduce sexually or asexually and produce spores which may be dispersed by wind or
water

Classification of Fungi:
Phylum Chytridiomycota
Mainly aquatic, some are parasitic or saprotrophic; unicellular or filamentous; chitin and glucan cell wall;
primarily asexual reproduction by motile spores (zoospores); mycelia; contains 2 classes.
Class Chytridiomycetes
Aquatic parasitic (on algae, fungi, or flowering plants) or saprotrophic; unicellular or filamentous;
motile cells characterized by a single posterior flagellum; monocentric thallus or polycentric
rhizomycelial; contains 3 orders.
Class Monoblepharidomycetes
Asexual reproduction by zoospores or autospores; filamentous, branched or unbranched thallus;
contains 1 order.
Phylum Neocallimastigomycota
Found in digestive tracts of herbivores; anaerobic; zoospores with one or more posterior flagella; lacks
mitochondria but contains hydrogenosomes (hydrogen-producing, membrane-bound organelles that
generate energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP); contains 1 class.
Class Neocallimastigomycetes
Contains 1 order.
Order Neocallimastigales - Digest cellulose; example genus is Neocallimastix.
Phylum Blastocladiomycota
Parasitic on plants and animals, some are saprotrophic; aquatic and terrestrial; flagellated; alternates
between haploid and diploid generations (zygotic meiosis); contains 1 class.
Class Blastocladiomycetes
Parasitic or saprotrophic; contains 1 order.
Order Blastocladiales; Parasitic (on many different substrates, including decaying fruits) or
saprotrophic; example genera include Allomyces and Coelomomyces.
Phylum Microsporidia
Parasitic on animals and protists; unicellular; highly reduced mitochondria; phylum not subdivided due
to lack of well-defined phylogenetic relationships within the group.
Class Paraglomeromycetes
Arbuscular mycorrhizal; forms complexes of spores.
Order Paraglomerales Arbuscular mycorrhizal; example genus is Paraglomus

Importance of Fungi:
– some cause serious diseases: lung infections by alveolar macrophages
– food preparation and food preservation: edible mushrooms, yeast used in baking and fermenting
wine and beer, used as aging factors for cheese, antibiotics, vitamins, anti-cancer and cholesterol
lowering drugs
– some used as pest control mechanisms and bio-remediation

KINGDOM PLANTAE (PLANT KINGDOM)

General Characteristics:
– eukaryotic and
multicellular; cells have cell walls mad of cellulose
– photosynthetic hence
autotrophic; majority have transport systems: roots, stem, leaves
– reproduce sexually
with alternation of generations but can produce asexually as well

Classification:

1. Division Bryophyta
These include mosses and liverworts.
General characteristic
• They are thalloids as in liverworts or differentiated into simple-leaf like and stemlike structures
• They lack vascular transport system
• They contain chlorophyll hence photosynthetic.
• They have developed rhizoids for anchoring and absorbing water together with dissolved mineral
salts.
• Show alternations of generations
• Male gametes are produced by antheridia and female gametes by archegonia. Fertilisation
depends on availability of water.
• They are terrestrial growing on dump substratum eg rocks, walls and marshes
2. Division Pteridophyta
These include the ferns and horsetails. They show a greater variety and a greater ability than bryophyte.
General characteristics
• They have roots, stems and leaves but no flowers
• Leaves are compound with leaflets known as pinna.
• They posses clearly defined vascular system( Having xylem and Phloem)
• They show alternation of generations
• Sexual reproduction
• They have sporangia (spore cases)
3. Division Spermatophyta
This division comprises all the seed bearing plants. They are familiar green plants which produce seeds
through flowers or cones.
General characteristics
• The plant has roots, stems, leaves and seed bearing structures
• They produce seeds
• They have chlorophyll hence photosynthetic
• They have vascular tissue is highly developed with xylem tissue consisting of both xylem tissue
and tracheids.
The division spermatophyte consists of two main subdivisions:
1. Gymnospermatophyta
2. Angiospermatophyta.

Gymnospermatophyta
Characteristics
• They bear cones of two types, male and female
• After fertilization seeds are not enclosed in a fruit wall.
• They show some xerophytic characteristics such as rolled leaves, needle-shaped leaves, sunken
stomata and thick waxy leaves
• Xylem consists mainly tracheids while phloem does not have companion cells.

This subdiviosn has three main classes

Class Coniferales
They include all the common gymnosperms naturally found in areas with little water.
• They have needle-like shaped leaves with a thick waxy cuticle
• Mature naked seeds occur at bases of female cones some months after pollination
Class Cycadales
Cycadeles resemble palms superficially.
• They have long compound leaves which are clustered at the apex of a thick ussualy short and
unbranched stems.
• They have cones which are borne at the apex of the trunk among leaves.
Class Ginkgoales
Members of this class are very rare. They have deciduous with fan-like leaves. Examples include Ginkgo
biloba species in China

Angiospermatophyta

This is the most advanced group found almost everywhere. They include grasses, herbs, shrubs and trees.
Characteristics
• They are flower bearing and are usually bisexual.
• Seeds are enclosed in an ovary which develops into a fruit.
• Xylem has tracheids and vessels while phloem has companion cells.
• They exhibit double fertilization.

This group is divided into Two Classes

Class Dicotyledonae (Dicots)
• These are plant whose embryo of seeds has two cotyledons.
• Their leaves are broad and have networks of veins
• Cross section of stems reveals vascular bundles arranged in rings
• They have taproot system
• Centrally placed star-shaped xylem with phloem alternating with arms of the xylem
• Their flowers have floral parts in five or fours
Examples are herbs, shrubs, and trees. The herbs include plants with all stems such as beans, cabbages,
tomatoes and black jack while the shrubs include plants with fairly thick stems such as coffee, tea and
cocoa

Class Monocotyledonae (Monocots)

• Their seeds have an embryo with one cotyledon
• Relatively narrow leaves with parallel veins
• The cross section of the stem reveals scattered vascular veins
• No vascular cambium hence no secondary growth
• They bear floral parts in threes
Examples include Maize, grass, wheat, sorghum, sugarcane, coconuts, bananas and sisal.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA (ANIMAL KINGDOM)

General characeristics:

– eukaryotic and multi-cellular

– motile, heterotrohic, sexually and asexually reproducing
– bases of classification: symmetry (radial or bilateral), with or without body cavity (coelomate,
pseudocoelomates or acoelomates); tissue origins (2 germ layers only or 3 germ layers: ectoderm,
mesoderm and endoderm); segmentation (with segments or without segments); presence of notochord
(primitive spinal cord) some are chordates (with notochord) and non-chordates (without notochord)

Animal Kingdom is classified into:

1. Phylum – Porifera
2. Phylum – Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
3. Phylum – Ctenophora
4. Phylum – Platyhelminthes
5. Phylum – Aschelminthes (Nemotoda) Annelida
6. Phylum – Arthropoda
7. Phylum – Mollusca
8. Phylum – Echinodermata
9. Phylum – Hemichordata
10. Phylum – Chordata

Phylum – Porifera
• Phylum – Porifera includes organisms with holes.
• They are primitive multicellular animals and have cellular level of organisation.
 • They are non-motile animals attached to some solid support.
• The body design involves very minimal differentiation and division into tissues.
• They are commonly called sponges.
• They are generally marine and mostly asymmetrical animals.
• Sponges have a water transport or canal system.
• Water enters through minute pores (ostia) in the body wall into a central cavity, spongocoel, from
where it goes out through the osculum.
• This pathway of water transport is helpful in food gathering, respiratory exchange and removal of
waste.
• The body is supported by a skeleton made up of spicules or spongin fibres.
• Sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite), i.e., eggs and sperms are produced by the same
individual.
• Sponges reproduce asexually by fragmentation and sexually by formation of gametes.
• Fertilisation is internal and development is indirect having a larval stage which is
morphologically distinct from the adult.

Phylum – Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

• The name cnidaria is derived from the cnidoblasts or cnidocytes (which contain the stinging
capsules or nematocytes) present on the tentacles and the body.
• Cnidoblasts are used for anchorage, defense and for the capture of prey.
• Coelenterata (Cnidaria) are aquatic, mostly marine sessile or free-swimming radially
symmetrical
• They exhibit tissue level of organization [have more body design differentiation than sponges].
• They have a central gastro-vascular cavity with a single opening.
• They are diploblastic.
• Some of these species live in colonies (corals).
• Some have a solitary [living alone] like–span (hydra).
• Some of the cnidarians, e.g., corals have a skeleton composed of calcium carbonate.
• Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms called polyp and medusa. The former is a sessile and
cylindrical form like Hydra, Adamsia (Sea anemone), etc. whereas, the latter is umbrella-shaped and
free-swimming like Aurelia or jelly fish.
• Those cnidarians which exist in both forms exhibit alternation of generation (Metagenesis), i.e.,
polyps produce medusae asexually and medusae form the polyps sexually (e.g., Obelia).
• Jellyfish and sea anemones are common examples.
• Digestion is extracellular and intracellular.
• Examples: Aurelia (jelly fish), Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war), Adamsia (Sea anemone),
Pennatula (Sea-pen),Gorgonia (Sea-fan) and Meandrina (Brain coral).
 Phylum – Ctenophora
• Ctenophora are commonly known as sea walnuts or comb jellies.
• They exclusively marine, radially symmetrical, diploblastic
• They exhinit tissue level of organisation.
• The body bears eight external rows of ciliated comb plates, which help in locomotion.
• Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular.
• Bioluminescence (the property of a living organism to emit light) is well-marked in ctenophores.
• Sexes are not separate and reproduction takes place only by sexual means.
• Fertilisation is external [fertilization occurs outside the body] with indirect development [zygote
→ larvae → animal].
• Examples: Pleurobrachia and Ctenoplana.

Phylum – Platyhelminthes
• Platyhelminthes are more complexly designed than the earlier groups.
• They are bilaterally symmetrical.
• They are triploblastic. This allows outside and inside body linings as well as some organs to be
made. There is thus some degree of tissue formation [organ level of organisation].
• The body is flattened dorsiventrally, meaning from top to bottom, which is why these animals are
called flatworms.
• They may be freeliving or parasitic. Hooks and suckers are present in the parasitic forms.
• Some examples are freeliving animals like planarians, or parasitic animals like
• Parisites are mostly endoparasites found in animals including human beings. Some of them
absorb nutrients from the host directly through their body surface.
• Acoelomate: There is no true internal body cavity or coelom, in which well developed organs can
be accommodated.
• Specialised cells called flame cells help in osmoregulation and excretion.
• Sexes are not separate.
• Fertilization is internal and development is indirect.
• Some members like Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.

Phylum – Aschelminthes (Nemotoda)

• Body in aschelminthes (Nemotoda) is cylindrical [bilaterally symmetrical] rather than
flattened.
• They exhibit organ-system level of body organization [there are tissues, but no real
organs].
• They are triploblastic. A sort of body cavity or a pseudocoelom, is present.
• They are freeliving, aquatic, terrestrial or parasitic in plants and animals.
• These are very familiar as parasitic worms causing diseases, such as the worms
causing elephantiasis (filarial worms) or the worms in the intestines (roundworm or pinworms).
 • The body is circular in cross-section, hence, the name roundworms.
• Alimentary canal is complete.
• An excretory tube removes body wastes from the body cavity through the excretory pore.
• Sexes are separate (dioecious), i.e., males and females are distinct.
• Often females are longer than males.
• Fertilization is internal and development may be direct (the young ones resemble the
adult) or indirect.

Phylum – Annelida
• Annelida are aquatic [marine and fresh water] or terrestrial; free-living, and sometimes parasitic.
• Their body surface is distinctly marked out into segments or metameres [metamerically
segmented] and, hence, the phylum name Annelida (Latin, annulus: little ring).
• They exhibit organ-system level of body organization.
• They are coelomate [true body cavity]. This allows true organs to be packaged in the body
structure.
• They are bilateral symmetric and triploblastic.
• They possess longitudinal and circular muscles which help in locomotion.
• Aquatic annelids like Nereis possess lateral appendages, parapodia, which help in swimming.
• A closed circulatory system is present.
• Nephridia (sing. nephridium) help in osmoregulation and excretion.
• Neural system consists of paired ganglia (sing. ganglion) connected by lateral nerves to a double
ventral nerve cord.
• Nereis, an aquatic form, is dioecious [Sexes are separate], but earthworms and leeches are
monoecious [having both the male and female reproductive organs in the same individual].
• Reproduction is sexual.

Phylum – Arthropoda
• Insects, arachnids and crustaceans are members of the largest category of creatures on the
planet: arthropods.
• Arthropods have hard, external shells called “exoskeletons,” segmented bodies and jointed legs.
• Some familiar examples are prawns, butterflies, houseflies, spiders, scorpions and crabs and
some
• They exhibit organ-system level of organisation.
• They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, segmented and coelomate The coelomic cavity is
blood-filled.
• The body of arthropods is covered by chitinous The body consists of head, thorax and abdomen.
 • There is an open circulatory system, and so the blood does not flow in well defined blood
vessels.
• Respiratory organs are gills, book gills, book lungs or tracheal system.
• Sensory organs like antennae, eyes (compound and simple), statocysts or balance organs are
present.
• Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules.
• They are mostly dioecious.
• Fertilisation is usually internal.
• They are mostly oviparous.
• Development may be direct or indirect.
Grouped as:
Arachnids
• Spiders, harvestmen, mites, ticks and other arachnids are members of the class Arachnida.

Crustaceans

• Crustaceans make up a large group of arthropods that includes animals such as crabs, lobsters, crayfish and
shrimp. They breathe with gills and have two pairs of antennae.

Insects

• In general, insects have three-part bodies, six jointed legs, compound eyes and two antennae.
• Bees, wasps, beetles, mosquitoes, flies, grasshoppers, ants, butterflies and moths, and dragonflies and
damselflies are common types of insects.

Phylum – Mollusca
• Mollusca are the second largest animal phylum. They are terrestrial or aquatic.
• They exhibit organ-system level of organization.
• They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate animals. There is little
segmentation.
• They have an open circulatory system and kidney-like organs for excretion. The anterior head
region has sensory tentacles.
• The mouth contains a file-like rasping organ for feeding, called radula.
• They are usually dioecious and oviparous with indirect development.
• Body is covered by a calcareous shell and is unsegmented with a distinct head, muscular foot and
visceral hump. A soft and spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over the visceral hump.
• Examples are octopus, snails and mussels.

Phylum – Echinodermata
• These animals have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles [calcium carbonate structures] and,
hence, the name Echinodermata (spiny skinned organisms).
• They are exclusively free-living marine animals with organ-system level of organisation.
 • They are triploblastic with a coelomic cavity [coelomate animals]. The adult echinoderms
are radially symmetrical but larvae are bilaterally symmetrical.
• Water-driven tube system [water vascular system] are used for locomotion, capture and transport
of food and respiration.
• They are triploblastic and coelomate animals.
• Digestive system is complete. An excretory system is absent.
• Sexes are separate. Reproduction is sexual. Fertilisation is usually external.
• Development is indirect with free-swimming larva.
• Examples: Star fish, Sea urchin, Sea lily, Sea cucumber, Brittle star.

Phylum – Hemichordata
• Hemichordata was earlier considered as a sub-phylum under phylum Chordata. But now it is
placed as a separate phylum under non-chordata.
• This phylum consists of a small group of worm-like marine animals with organ-system level of
organisation.
• They are cylindrical [bilaterally symmetrical], triploblastic, coelomate animals.
• The body is Circulatory system is of open type.
• Respiration takes place through gills.
• Excretory organ is present.
• Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is external. Development is indirect.
• Examples: Balanoglossus and Saccoglossus.

Phylum – Chordata
• Animals belonging to phylum Chordata are fundamentally characterised by the presence of a
notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits.
• They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate with organ-system level of
organisation.
• They possess a post anal tail and a closed circulatory system.
• Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla: Urochordata or Tunicata, Cephalochordata and
Vertebrata.
• Subphyla Urochordata and Cephalochordata are often referred to as protochordates and are
exclusively marine.
• In Urochordata, notochord is present only in larval tail, while in Cephalochordata, it extends
from head to tail region and is persistent throughout their life.
• Examples: Urochordata – Ascidia, Salpa, Doliolum; Cephalochordata – Amphioxus or Lancelet.
All chordates possess the following features:
1. have a notochord 4. have paired gill pouches
2. have a dorsal nerve cord 5. are coelomate
3. are triploblastic
Classification of Vertebrates
• Pisces
• Amphibia
• Reptilia
• Aves
• Mammalia

Class Pisces (Fishes)

They are aquatic animals, having a streamlined body and a pair of fins which are used for propulsion and
movement. Furthermore, fish are cold-blooded, but the discovery of a new species in 2015 has changed this
perception. The opah or the moon-fish is a fully warm-blooded fish capable of regulating its body
temperature.

Endoskeleton may be cartilaginous or bony and respiration occurs through gills. They also do not possess
eyelids because the surface of the eye is kept moist all the time.

Examples of Class Pisces includes dogfish and Rohu.

Class Amphibia
They usually comprise of those organisms which are cold-blooded and require an aquatic habitat to lay eggs.
These organisms are mainly characterized by the two pairs of limbs, smooth and moist skin for respiration.
They also possess protruding eyes which are protected by usually more than one pair of eyelids. (Frogs have
3).

Examples of Class Amphibia are frog, toad, and salamander.

Class Aves (Birds)

Most members have a streamlined body specially designed to offer low air resistance during flight. In such
birds, the forelimbs are modified into wings, with the power coming from breast muscles. Feathers play
important roles, from flight, thermal insulation to water-proofing.  All members of this class are warm-
blooded and are able to regulate their body temperature.

Aves have beaks, which are used for various functions such as preening and feeding. Furthermore, birds are
considered to be the living relatives of dinosaurs (evolved from a group of meat-eating dinosaurs called the
theropods).

Examples of Class Aves are Parrot, Pigeon, Duck, etc.

Class Mammalia
These organisms are distinguished by the presence of mammary glands, a segmented body that is divided
into Head-Neck-Trunk-Tail. Digits are provided with claws, nails or hooves. Most of the members in this
species lack the external ear called the pinna (except humans.) They are warm-blooded animals.

Examples of Class Mammalia include monkeys, lions, bats, squirrels and humans.