Skeletal System Notes

 Skeletons Inside and Out Skeletal systems come in many forms. You have a
skeleton inside of your body (endoskeleton) made up of bones. Insects and
crustaceans have skeletal systems on the outside or their bodies (exoskeletons)
that are made of hard plates.

What is Skeletal system?

• The framework of the body, consisting of bones and other connective tissues,
which protects and supports the body tissues and internal organs.
• Bones provide a rigid framework, known as the skeleton, that support and protect
the soft organs of the body.

Functions of Skeleton:
 Support - The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and
maintains its shape.
 Movement - The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider
range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater
range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck.
 Protection - The skeleton helps to protect our many vital internal organs from
being damaged. The skull protects the brain The vertebrae protect the spinal
cord. The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood
vessels.
 Blood cell production - The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the
development of blood cells that takes place in the bone marrow. In children,
haematopoiesis occurs primarily in the marrow of the long bones such as the
femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and
sternum.
 Endocrine regulation Bone cells - Release a hormone called osteocalcin,
which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition.
 Storage - The bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium
metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron
metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of calcium, but a mixture of
chondroitin sulfate and
hydroxyapatite, the latter
making up 70% of a bone.
Hydroxyapatite is in turn
composed of 39.8% of calcium,
41.4% of oxygen, 18.5% of
phosphorus, and 0.2% of
hydrogen by mass. Chondroitin
sulfate is a sugar made up
primarily of oxygen and carbon
Cranium surrounds the brain to make it less vulnerable to injury. Vertebrae surround
and protect the spinal cord. Rib cage help protect the heart and lungs.

 Bones contain more calcium than any other

organ.

 Hematopoiesis, the formation of blood cells,

mostly takes place in the red marrow of the
bones.

 Red marrow functions in the formation of red

blood cells, white blood cells, and blood platelets.

There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy bone.
• Compact bone, also known as cortical bone, is a denser material used to create
much of the hard structure of the skeleton. As seen in the image below, compact
bone forms the cortex, or hard outer shell of most bones in the body.
• Cancellous bone, also known as spongy or trabecular bone. consists of a
network of trabeculae or rod-like structures. It is lighter, less dense, and more
flexible than compact bone.

The are three types of cells that contribute to bone homeostasis: Osteoblasts ,
Osteoclasts, and Osteocytes.
• Osteoblasts - These are responsible for making new bone and repairing older
bone. Osteoblasts produce a protein mixture called osteoid, which is mineralized
and becomes bone. They also manufacture hormones, including prostaglandins.
• Osteocytes - These are inactive osteoblasts that have become trapped in the
bone that they have created. They maintain connections to other osteocytes and
osteoblasts. They are important for communication within bone tissue.
• Osteoclasts - a large multinucleate bone cell which absorbs bone tissue during
growth and healing.

Skeleton Components
 Bone - a type of mineralized
connective tissue that contains
collagen and calcium phosphate, a
mineral crystal.
 Cartilage - a form of fibrous
connective tissue that is composed of
closely packed collagenous fibers in a
rubbery gelatinous substance called
chondrin.
 Tendon - a fibrous band of
connective tissue that is bonded to
bone and connects muscle to bone.
 Ligament - a fibrous band of connective tissue that joins bones and other
connective tissues together at joints.
 Joint - a site where two or more bones or other skeletal components are
joined together.
  The human skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage, tendons, and
ligaments and accounts for about 20% of the body weight.
Bone development and growth
The terms Osteogenesis or Ossification - is the process of bone formation by
osteoblasts. Ossification begins approximately six weeks after fertilization in an embryo.
Before this time, the embryonic skeleton consists entirely of fibrous membranes and
hyaline cartilage. The development of bone from fibrous membranes is called
intramembranous ossification; development from hyaline cartilage is called
endochondral ossification.
There are two types of ossification: Intramembranous and endochondral.
Intramembranous ossification
 Formation of bone
 fetus before 8 weeks
 Flat bones: Skull, clavicle

 Osteoid consists mostly of a fibrous

protein called collagen, while the mineral
complexes are made up of crystals of
calcium and phosphate, known as
hydroxyapatite, that are embedded in
the osteoid. Bone also contains nutritive
cells called osteocytes.
 osteoid is the unmineralized, organic
portion of the bone matrix that forms prior to
the maturation of bone tissue. Osteoblasts
begin the process of forming bone tissue by
secreting the osteoid as several
specific proteins.

Endochondral ossification
 Fetus after 2 months
 all other bones (not
flat)
 Hyaline Cartilage
3 types of bone cells
Osteoblasts: These are
responsible for making new
bone and repairing older
bone. Osteoblasts produce a
protein mixture called osteoid,
which is mineralized and becomes bone. They also manufacture hormones, including
prostaglandins.
Osteocytes: These are inactive osteoblasts that have become trapped in the bone that
they have created. They maintain connections to other osteocytes and osteoblasts.
They are important for communication within bone tissue.
Osteoclasts: These are large cells with more than one nucleus. Their job is to break
down bone. They release enzymes and acids to dissolve minerals in bone and digest
them. This process is called resorption. Osteoclasts help remodel injured bones and
create pathways for nerves and blood vessels to travel through.
BONE REMODELING
Bone is always being remodeled. This is a two-part process:
1. Resorption when osteoclasts break down and remove bone.
2. Formation when new bone tissue is laid down.
An estimated 10 percent of an adult's skeleton is replaced each year.
Remodeling allows the body to fix damaged sections, reshape the skeleton during
growth, and regulate calcium levels.
If one part of the skeleton is put under increased stress over time, for instance, during
sport or exercise, the sections of bone under most pressure will become thicker in
response. Remodeling is under the control of several hormones, including parathyroid
hormone.

Classification of Bones
• Bones that are longer than they are wide are called Long bones. They consist of
a long shaft with two bulky ends or extremities. They are primarily compact bone
but may have a large amount of spongy bone at the ends or extremities.
• Short bones are roughly cube shaped with vertical and horizontal dimensions
approximately equal. They consist primarily of spongy bone, which is covered by
a thin layer of
compact bone.
• Flat bones are thin,
flattened, and usually
curved. Most of the
bones of
the cranium are flat
bones.
• Do you know that
total number of bone
a new born have is
300, while The adult
human skeleton
usually consists of
206 named bones.
• As babies grow,
some of
their bones fuse
together. Some infant bones are made entirely of soft, flexible tissue called
cartilage that's slowly replaced by hard bone as the baby develops.
DIVISION OF SKELETON
  These bones can be grouped in two divisions: Axial skeleton and
Appendicular skeleton.

Appendicular Axial
skeleton skeleton

Upper Lower Facial Auditory

Extremity Extremity bones ossicles
Thoracic
Cage
Pectoral
Pelvic Girldes Cranial Vertebral
Girdles bones column

Axial Skeleton (80 bones)

Skull (28)
Cranial Bones
• Parietal (2)
• Temporal (2)
• Frontal (1)
• Occipital (1)
• Ethmoid (1)
• Sphenoid (1)

Facial Bones
• Maxilla (2)
• Zygomatic (2)
• Mandible (1)
• Nasal (2)
• Platine (2)
• Inferior nasal concha
(2)
• Lacrimal (2)
• Vomer (1)
Auditory Ossicles
• Malleus (2)
• Incus (2)
• Stapes (2)
Hyoid (1)

Vertebral Column
• Cervical
vertebrae (7)
• Thoracic
vertebrae (12)
• Lumbar
vertebrae (5)
• Sacrum (1)
• Coccyx (1)

Thoracic Cage
• Sternum (1)
• Ribs (24)

Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones)

• Pectoral girdles
• Clavicle (2)
• Scapula (2)
 Pelvic Girdle
• Coxal, innominate, or hip bones (2)

Upper Extremity
• Humerus (2)
• Radius (2)

• Ulna (2)
• Carpals (16)
• Metacarpals (10)
• Phalanges (28)

Lower Extremity
• Femur (2)
• Tibia (2)
• Fibula (2)
• Patella (2)
• Tarsals (14)
• Metatarsals (10)
• Phalanges (28)

Osteoporosis is a disease that causes the

density and strength of bones to decrease
because bone loss occurs faster than bone
growth.
Causes: Risk factors for osteoporosis include aging, being female, low body weight, low
sex hormones or menopause, smoking, and some medications.
Symptoms: A person is often not aware that he or she has osteoporosis until a fracture
occurs. But there are occasionally symptoms of the disorder. They could include:
• Backache
• A gradual loss of height and an accompanying stooped posture
• Fractures of the spine, wrist, or hip
Treatment or prevention: Prevention and treatment include calcium and vitamin D,
exercise, and osteoporosis medications.

Leukemia is a type of cancer that starts in the bone marrow and the lymphatic system.
Causes: the exact cause(s) of leukemia is not known, risk factors have been identified,
including radiation exposure, certain chemotherapy for cancer, smoking, family history
of leukemia, and exposure to certain chemicals such as benzene.
Symptoms:
 pain in the bones or joints,
 swollen lymph nodes that usually don't hurt, fevers or night sweats,
 feeling weak or tired, etc
Treatment: Treatment will typically depend upon the type of leukemia, the patient's age
and health status. Chemotherapy, Biological therapy and etc.

Osteoarthritis is a disease that causes the breakdown of the cartilage that protects the
ends of bones in joints.
Risk factors: Older age, Sex, Joint injuries and etc
Symptoms: Pain, Tenderness, Stiffness and etc.
Treatment: see a doctor, Medications, Therapy, and etc

Rickets is a disease of children caused by vitamin D deficiency, characterized by

imperfect calcification, softening, and distortion of the bones typically resulting in bow
legs.
Causes/ risk factor: age, diet, genes and etc.
Symptoms:
 pain or tenderness in the bones of the arms, legs, pelvis, or pine
 stunted growth and short stature
 bone fractures
 muscle cramps
 teeth deformities, such as:delayed tooth formation
Treatment: Calcium and vitamin D supplements and etc
Prevention: The best way to prevent rickets is to eat a diet that includes adequate
amounts of calcium, phosphorous, and vitamin D.

A bone tumor is a neoplastic growth of tissue in bone. Abnormal growths found in

the bone can be either benign (noncancerous) or malignant (cancerous).
Causes: genetics, radiation treatment, and injuries to the bones.
Symptoms: Pain. The earliest symptoms of bone cancer are pain and swelling
Joint swelling and stiffness. A tumor that occurs near or in a joint may cause the joint to
swell and become tender or stiff.
Treatment or prevention: Chemotherapy and etc.