RESPIRATORY SYSTEM NOTES

• Overview of The
Respiratory System
• The respiratory system,
which include air passages,
pulmonary vessels, the
lungs, and breathing muscle,
aids the body in the
exchange of gases between
the air and blood, and
between the blood and the
body’s billions of cells
• the organs of the
respiratory system help to
distribute air, but only the
tiny, grape-like alveoli and
the alveolar ducts are
responsible for actual gas
exchange
• The respiratory system filters, warms, and humidifies the air you breathe
• The respiratory system also helps the body maintain homeostasis, or balance
among the many elements of the body’s internal environment

Processes in the Respitory System:

• Breathing - also known as ventilation, is the process of moving air into and out
of the lungs to facilitate gas exchange with the internal environment, mostly by
bringing in oxygen and flushing out carbon dioxide.
• Air will move in or out of the lungs depending on the pressure in the alveoli. The
body changes the pressure in the alveoli by changing the volume of the lungs. As
volume increases pressure decreases and as volume decreases pressure
increases.
• There are two phases of ventilation: inspiration and expiration.
• Inspiration - also known as inhalation, is the phase of ventilation in which
air enters the lungs. It is initiated by contraction of the inspiratory muscles:
• Diaphragm – flattens, extending the superior/inferior dimension of the thoracic
cavity.
• External intercostal muscles – elevates the ribs and sternum, extending the
anterior/posterior dimension of the thoracic cavity.
• The action of the inspiratory muscles results in an increase in the volume of the
thoracic cavity. As the lungs are held against the inner thoracic wall by the
pleural seal, they also undergo an increase in volume.
• Expiration - also known as exhalation, is the phase of ventilation in which air is
expelled from the lungs. It is initiated by relaxation of the inspiratory muscles:
 • Diaphragm – returns to resting position, reducing the superior/inferior dimension
of the thoracic cavity.
• External intercostal muscles – relaxes to depress the ribs and sternum,
reducing the anterior/posterior dimension of the thoracic cavity.
• The relaxation of the inspiratory muscles results in a decrease in the volume of
the thoracic cavity. The elastic recoil of the previously expanded lung tissue
allows them to return to their original size.
• Gas Exchange - is the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream, and
the elimination of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the lungs. It occurs in
the lungs between the alveoli and a network of tiny blood vessels called
capillaries, which are located in the walls of the alveoli.
• The walls of
the alveoli
actually share a
membrane with
the capillaries in
which oxygen
and carbon
dioxide move
freely between
the respiratory
system and the
bloodstream.
Oxygen
molecules attach
to red blood
cells, which
travel back to the
heart. At the
same time, the carbon dioxide molecules in the alveoli are blown out of the body
with the next exhalation.
Anatomy of the Respiratory System:
• Nose and Nasal cavity - -main external opening for the respiratory system
• Nose - is a structure of the face made of cartilage, bone, skin, and muscle
• it serves as a passage for the entry of fresh air into the body
• function: absorption of air from atmosphere
• Nasal cavity - is a hollow space within the nose and skull that is lined with hairs
and mucous membrane
• > the sticky mucous membrane lining in the nasal cavity traps dust particles and
the tiny hairs that help move the mucus toward the nose. It is then remove out of
the body by sneezing and coughing.
• Functions: warm, moisturize, and filtering air entering the body before it reaches
the lungs.
 • Mouth - also known as oral cavity
• secondary external opening for the respiratory tract
• can be used to supplement or replace the nasal cavity’s function when needed
• Pharynx - also known as throat
• a body organ which serves as an integral part of the two major body systems
(digestive and respiratory system)
• semi-muscular tube connects the mouth to the esophagus and the nasal cavity
to the windpipe (trachea)
• 12-14 cm (vertical length)
Functions of Pharynx
• Passageway for
inhaled air - the
pharynx assists in the
passage of inhaled air
from the nasal and oral
cavities. The air then
enters the trachea to
reach the major
respiratory organs, the
lungs
• Warming and
humidification - while
passing through the
nose, the air is warmed
and moistened. The
inhaled air is further
warmed and humidified
as it passes through the pharyngeal region

THREE DISTINCT SUBDIVISION OF PHARYNX:

• nasopharynx -starts at the base of skull and continues to the soft palate
- connection with the nose or nasal cavity
• oropharynx - the subdivision of the pharynx which connects it with the mouth or
oral cavity.
-the soft palate is the one which separates the nasopharynx from the oropharynx
• laryngeal pharynx / laryngopharynx -also known as hypopharynx
- coonection with larynx or the voice box
- epiglottis serves as a separation between the orpharynx and the laryngeal
pharynx

• Trachea - also known as windpipe

• 5-inch long tube made of c-shape hyaline cartilage rings lined with
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
 >the rings of cartilage making up the trachea allow it to remain open to air at all
times
• it connects the larynx to the bronchi and allows air to pass through the neck and
into the thorax
• functions:
1. provide a clear airway for air to enter and exit the lungs
2. the epithelium lining in the trachea produces mucus that traps dust and other
contaminants and prevents it from reaching the lungs
• Bronchi (bronchus) - two branches of trachea which lead directly to the lungs
(sub-division of the windpipe)
• omposed of cartilaginous material carry air from the trachea into the lungs
• connect the trachea to the two lungs
Parts of Bronchi:
• Primary bronchi
-the left and right main bronchus
Differences in the structure of the left and right bronchus:
LEFT MAIN BRONCHUS RIGHT MAIN BRONCHUS

• The left primary bronchus
supplies air to the left
lung [9] and is around 5cm in
size, twice as long as the right
main bronchus.
• The left main bronchus divides
into two.
• The branch that leads into the
right lung is called the right
main or primary bronchus.
Being about 2.5cm long, it is
shorter than the left primary
bronchus, but wider in diameter
• The right main bronchus
subdivides into three lobar
bronchi

• Secondary bronchi (lobar bronchi)

• - it carry air into the lobes of the lungs - 2 in the left lung and 3 in the right lung
- The three secondary or lobar bronchi of the right lung act as the passage for air
to the superior, middle, and inferior lobes of the right lung. There are only two
secondary bronchi in the left lung as there are only two lobes to supply, the
superior and inferior lobes.
• Tertiary bronchi
-results from the further branching of the secondary bronchus
-These supply air to the bronchopulmonary segments. There are ten tertiary in
the right lung, while the left lung has eight tertiary bronchi.
• Bronchioles - also called as bronchioli
-results from the further subdivision of tertiary bronchi
- no longer contain cartilage in their walls
-at the end of bronchioles, the alveolar sacs are present
> alveolar sacs(alveoli) are the places where the exchange of respiratory gases
takes place

• Lungs - major organ of the respiratory system

 • are pair of large, spongy found in the thorax lateral to the heart and superior to
the diaphragm
• the interior of the lungs are made up of spongy tissues containing many
capillaries and around 30 million tiny sacs (alveoli)
• the left lung is smaller and has 2 lobes while the right lung is larger and consists
of 3 lobes
• functions:
- lungs plays a vital role in providing oxygen to all the body organs
Muscle of Respiration:
• Diaphragm - is a thin
skeletal muscle that sits
at the base of the chest
and separates the
abdomen from the chest
• is a dome-shaped
muscle is located just
below
the lungs and heart. It
contracts continually as
you breathe in and out.
• it is the primary muscle
used in respiration, which is the process of breathing.
How diaphragm works?
• It contracts and flattens when you inhale. This creates a vacuum effect that pulls
air into the lungs. When you exhale, the diaphragm relaxes and the air is pushed
out of lungs.

• Intercostal muscles - are several groups of muscles that run between the ribs,
and help form and move the chest wall.
• The intercostal muscles are mainly involved in the mechanical aspect of
breathing. These muscles help expand and shrink the size of the chest cavity to
facilitate breathing.
Two Types of Intercostal muscles:
• Internal intercostal muscles - are the deeper set of muscles and depress the
ribs to compress the thoracic cavity and force air to be exhaled from the lungs
• External intercostal muscles - - are found superficial to the internal intercostals
and function to elevate the ribs, expanding the volume of the thoracic cavity and
causing air to be inhaled into the lungs

Tissues of the Respiratory system:

• Nasal Cavity - Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Pharynx - Stratified squamous epithelium
Larynx - Cartilage
Glottis - Stratified squamous epithelium
Epiglottis - elastic cartilage
Trachea - Pseudostratified columnar and Ciliated
Bronchi - Pseudostratified columnar
Bronchioles - ciliated cuboidal epithelium
Lungs - squamous epithelial tissue and ciliated epithelium
Alveolar Ducts - simple cuboidal cells
Alveoli - Simple squamous epithelium
Diaphragm - Fibrous Tissue
Diseases In The Respiratory System:
• Chronic Bronchitis - is an inflammation of bronchal tubes, (the airways that
carry air to your lungs). It causes a cough that often brings up mucus and is a
long term condition.
• It’s effects are: shortness of breath, wheezing, a low fever, & chess tightness
Causes of Chronic Bronchitis:
• Smoking,
• Inhaling irritating fumes or dust,
• Viruses such as the flu,
• Bacteria
Symptoms for either acute bronchitis or chronic bronchitis, signs and symptoms may
include:
• Cough
• Production of mucus (sputum), which can be clear, white, yellowish-gray or green
in color rarely, it may be streaked with blood
• Fatigue
• Shortness of breath
• Slight fever and chills
• Chest discomfort
Treatment for Chronic Bronchitis - can differ depending on the suspected cause. There
is no cure for chronic bronchitis, and treatment is aimed at reducing symptoms and
improving lung function.
• Medications to help suppress the cough or loosen and clear secretions may be
helpful. (Ex: Cough Surppressors)
• Bronchodilator inhalers will help open airways and decrease wheezing.
• Though antibiotics play a limited role in treating chronic bronchitis, they become
necessary in some situations.
• If the doctor suspects a bacterial infection, antibiotics may be prescribed.
• People with underlying chronic lung problems may also need to be treated with
antibiotics.
• In severe cases of chronic bronchitis, home oxygen may be necessary.
• In rare cases, the patient may be hospitalized if they experience breathing
difficulty that doesn't respond to treatment. This usually occurs because of a
complication of chronic bronchitis, or in individuals with other underlying lung
problems
• Emphysema - is a lung condition that causes shortness of breath.
• the air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged. The inner walls of the air sacs are
weaken and rupture. Larger air spaces instead of many small ones this reduces
the surface area of the lungs and in turn the amount of oxygen that reaches your
bloodstream.
Causes of Emphysema
• The main cause of emphysema is long-term exposure to airborne irritants,
including:
• Tobacco smoke
• Marijuana smoke
• Air pollution
• Chemical fumes and dust
• Rarely, emphysema is caused by an inherited deficiency of a protein that
protects the elastic structures in the lungs. It's called alpha-1-antitrypsin
deficiency emphysema.
Symptoms of Emphysema
• Shortness of Breath
• Chronic Cough
In the later stages, the person may have:
• frequent lung infections • fatigue
• wheezing • sleep problems
• reduced appetite and weight loss • morning headaches due to a lack of
oxygen,
Treatment for Emphysema
• Emphysema and COPD can't be cured, but treatments can help relieve
symptoms and slow the progression of the disease.
• Medications:
• Bronchodilators • Pulmonary rehabilitation.
• Inhaled Corticosteroids • Antibiotics
• Therapy for Emphysema • Supplemental oxygen
• Nutrition therapy

• Asthma - is a condition in which your airways narrow and swell and produce
extra mucus. This can make breathing difficult and trigger coughing, wheezing
and shortness of breath.
• For some people, asthma is a minor nuisance. For others, it can be a major
problem that interferes with daily activities and may lead to a life-threatening
asthma attack.
Causes of Asthma:
• It isn't clear why some people get asthma and others don't, but it's probably due
to a combination of environmental and genetic (inherited) factors.
• Asthma triggers
• Exposure to various irritants and substances that trigger allergies (allergens) can
trigger signs and symptoms of asthma. Asthma triggers are different from person
to person and can include:
• Airborne substances, such as pollen, dust mites, mold spores, pet dander or
particles of cockroach waste.Respiratory infections, such as the common cold
• Physical activity (exercise-induced asthma)
• Cold air
• Air pollutants and irritants, such as smoke
• Certain medications, including beta blockers, aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB,
others) and naproxen (Aleve)
• Strong emotions and stress
 • Sulfites and preservatives added to some types of foods and beverages,
including shrimp, dried fruit, processed potatoes, beer and wine
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), a condition in which stomach acids
back up into your throat
Symptoms of Asthma:
• Shortness of breath
• Chest tightness or pain
• Trouble sleeping caused by shortness of breath, coughing or wheezing
• A whistling or wheezing sound when exhaling (wheezing is a common sign of
asthma in children)
• Coughing or wheezing attacks that are worsened by a respiratory virus, such as
a cold or the flu
• Signs that your asthma is probably worsening include:
• Asthma signs and symptoms that are more frequent and bothersome
• Increasing difficulty breathing (measurable with a peak flow meter, a device used
to check how well your lungs are working)
• The need to use a quick-relief inhaler more often
Treatment for Asthma:
• Medications:
• Long-term asthma control medications - generally taken daily, are the
cornerstone of asthma treatment. These medications keep asthma under control
on a day-to-day basis and make it less likely you'll have an asthma attack. Types
of long-term control medications include:
• Inhaled corticosteroids
• Leukotriene modifiers
• Long-acting beta agonists
• Combination inhalers
• Theophyllin
• Quick-relief (rescue) medications - are used as needed for rapid, short-term
symptom relief during an asthma attack — or before exercise if your doctor
recommends it. Types of quick-relief medications include:
• Short-acting beta agonists.
• Ipratropium (Atrovent)
• Oral and intravenous corticosteroids
• Allergy medications may help if your asthma is triggered or worsened by
allergies. These include:
• Allergy shots (immunotherapy)
• Omalizumab (Xolair)
• Pneumonia - is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs. The
air sacs may fill with fluid or pus (purulent material), causing cough with phlegm
or pus, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing. A variety of organisms, including
bacteria, viruses and fungi, can cause pneumonia.
• Pneumonia can range in seriousness from mild to life-threatening. It is most
serious for infants and young children, people older than age 65, and people with
health problems or weakened immune systems.
Causes of Pnuemonia:
• Community-acquired pneumonia - is the most common type of pneumonia. It
occurs outside of hospitals or other health care facilities. It may be caused by:
• Bacteria
• Bacteria-like organisms
• Fungi
• Viruses
Sympthoms of Pneumonia:
• Signs and symptoms of pneumonia may include:
• Chest pain when you breathe or cough
• Confusion or changes in mental awareness (in adults age 65 and older)
• Cough, which may produce phlegm
• Fatigue and Fever, sweating and shaking chills
• Lower than normal body temperature (in adults older than age 65 and people
with weak immune systems)
• Nausea, vomiting or diarrhea
• Shortness of breath
Prevention Treatment for Pneumonia Lifestyle and home
remedies for
Pnuemonia

: • Antibiotics. • Get plenty of

• Get vaccinated. • Fever rest.
• Make sure reducers/pain • Stay hydrated.
children get relievers. • Take your
vaccinated. • Cough medicine. medicine as
• Practice good prescribed.
hygiene.
• Keep your
immune system
strong.

• Lung Cancer - is a type of cancer that begins in the lungs. Your lungs are two
spongy organs in your chest that take in oxygen when you inhale and release
carbon dioxide when you exhale.
 • People who smoke have the greatest risk of lung cancer, though lung cancer can
also occur in people who have never smoked. The risk of lung cancer increases
with the length of time and number of cigarettes you've smoked. If you quit
smoking, even after smoking for many years, you can significantly reduce your
chances of developing lung cancer.
Symptoms of Lung Cancer:
• Signs and symptoms of lung cancer may include:
• A new cough that doesn't go away • Hoarseness
• Coughing up blood, even a small amount • Losing weight without trying
• Shortness of breath • Bone pain
• Chest pain • Headache
Causes For Lung Cancer:
• Smoking causes the majority of lung cancers — both in smokers and in people
exposed to secondhand smoke. But lung cancer also occurs in people who never
smoked and in those who never had prolonged exposure to secondhand smoke.
In these cases, there may be no clear cause of lung cancer.
Treatment for Lung Cancer:
• Surgery •Immunotheraphy
• Radiationtheraphy •Palliative care
• Chemotheraphy
Prevention for Lung Cancer:
• Stop Smoking or Do not even try to start smoking
• Eat a healthy balance diet
• Avoid Secondhand smoke
• Try to Excercise
• Avoid carcinogens at work