General Biology 2 Quarter 4

Senior High School
NOT
General Biology 2
Quarter 4 - Module 1
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines
1
General Biology 2- Grade 12
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 4 - Module 1:
First Edition, 2020
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Published by the Department of Education – Division of Cagayan de Oro Schools

Division Superintendent: Dr. Cherry Mae L. Limbaco, CESO V
Development Team of the Module
Author: CE Jared Zelig V. Betita
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Senior
Senior High
High School
School
General Biology
2
Quarter 2 - Module 2:
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Table of Contents
What This Module is About ................................................................................................................... i

What I Need to Know .............................................................................................................................. ii
How to Learn from this Module ...........................................................................................................ii
Icons of this Module ...............................................................................................................................iii
What I Know ........................................................................................................................................... iii
First Quarter
Lesson 1: Reproduction and Development
What I Need to Know..................................................................................................12
What’s I Know: Definition of Terms.........................................................................12
What New .......................................................................................................................12
What is It: Leaning Concepts………………………………………………………….13
What’s More: ……………….………………………………………………………….14
Lesson 2: Nutrition

What’s I Know: Definition of Terms.........................................................................17
What’s New: .................................................................................................................17
What’s Is It: Learning Concepts …………………………………………………..18-20
What’s More: ...............................................................................................................20

What I’ve Learned………………………………….........................................20
Lesson 3: Gas Exchange

What I Know: Definition of Terms ............................................................................21
What’s New: ..................................................................................................................22
What is It: Learning Concepts…………………………………………………….23-24
What I Have Learned: ………………………………………………………………….24

Lesson 4: Transport and Circulation

What I know: Definition of Terms ............................................................................25
5
What’s New: .................................................................................................................26
What is It: Learning Concept………………………………………………….27-29
Lesson 5: Regulation of Body Fluids

What’s New: .................................................................................................................30
What Is It: Learning Concepts ..................................................................................31
What’s More: …………………………..…………………………………………….32
Lesson 6: Immune Systems

What’s New: .................................................................................................................33
What Is It: Learning Concepts ..................................................................................34
What’s More: Evolution Evidences………………………………………………….37

Lesson 7: Chemical and Nervous Control

What’s New: .................................................................................................................39
What is It: Learning Concepts………………………………………………………39-41
What’s More: ...............................................................................................................42
Lesson 8: Sensory and Motor Mechanisms

What’s New: .................................................................................................................44
What is It: Learning Concept………………………………………………….44-45
What’s More: Essay ....................................................................................................46
Lesson 9: Feedback Mechanisms

What’s New: ..................................................................................................................47
What is It: Learning Concepts………………………………………………………48
What’s More:.................................................................................................................48
References ............................................................................................................................................ 49
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Module 2
What This Module is About
This module demonstrates your understanding of the characteristics of Earth

that are necessary to support life, particularly on the essential components of this
planet that drives all living things or biotic factors (plants, animals, microorganisms) to
exist. It also emphasizes on the different subsystems (geosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, and biosphere) that make up the Earth and how these systems interact
to produce the kind of Earth we live in today.
This module will help you explore the key concepts on topics that will help you
answer the questions pertaining to our very own, planet earth.
This module has eleven (10) lessons:

• Lesson 1: Reproduction and Development
• Lesson 2: Nutrition
• Lesson 3: Gas Exchange
• Lesson 4: Transport and Circulation
• Lesson 5: Regulation of Body Fluids
• Lesson 6: Immune Systems
• Lesson 7: Chemical and Nervous Control
• Lesson 8: Sensory and Motor Mechanisms
• Lesson 9: Feedback Mechanisms
What I Need to Know

After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals: reproduction,
development, nutrition, gas exchange, transport/ circulation, regulation of body fluids,
chemical and nervous control, immune systems, and sensory and motor mechanisms.
STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1
2. Explain how some organisms maintain steady internal conditions (e.g., temperature
regulation, osmotic balance and glucose levels) that possess various structures and
processes. STEM_BIO11/12-IVi-j-2
8
How to Learn from this Module
To achieve the learning competencies cited above, you are to do the following:
• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.
• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.
• Answer all the given tests and exercises.
Icons of this Module
What I Need to This part contains learning objectives that

Know are set for you to learn as you go along the
module.
What I know This is an assessment as to your level of

knowledge to the subject matter at hand,
meant specifically to gauge prior related
knowledge
What’s In This part connects previous lesson with that
of the current one.
What’s New An introduction of the new lesson through

various activities, before it will be presented
to you
What is It These are discussions of the activities as a

way to deepen your discovery and under-
standing of the concept.
What’s More These are follow-up activities that are in-

tended for you to practice further in order to
master the competencies.
What I Have Activities designed to process what you

Learned have learned from the lesson
What I can do These are tasks that are designed to show-

case your skills and knowledge gained, and
applied into real-life concerns and situations.
II
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Lesson Reproduction and
1 Development
What I need to know
Learning Competency
Compare and contrast the following processes in
plants and animals: reproduction and development. (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

• differentiate asexual from sexual reproduction; and
• describe different modes of sexual and asexual reproduction
• describe the different stages of animal development
• describe human reproductive organ systems
• enumerate the different types of reproductive cycles
• describe double fertilization in flowering plants; and
• explain processes in plant development.
What I know
Definition of Terms:
1. Asexual Reproduction 11. Haploid

2. Sexual Reproduction 12. Diploid
3. Fission 13. Gametogenesis
4. Fragmentation 14. Fertilization
5. Budding 15. Cleavage
6. Sporulation 16. Gastrulation
7. Isogamy 17. Organogenesis
8. Heterogamy 18. Growth
9. Bisexual Reproduction 19. Folicular phase
10. Development 20. Ovulation
What’s new
PRE-ACTIVITY:
1. Differentiate Asexual Reproduction and Sexual Reproduction.
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2. Identify the types of asexual reproduction and give examples.
Types of Asexual Reproduction Examples
1.
2.
3.
4.
3. Summarize the differences between asexual and sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
Number of Parents Involved
Gametes
Genetic composition of
offspring
What’s is it
INTRODUCTION:
Development is the process by which a multicellular organism, beginning with a single cell, goes
through a series of changes, taking on the successive forms that characterize its life cycle.
Animal and Plant Development
FOUR KEY PROCESSES UNDERLIE DEVELOPMENT
The developmental changes an organism undergoes as it progresses from an embryo to mature

adulthood involve four processes:
❖ Determination sets the developmental fate of a cell—what type of cell it will become—even
before any characteristics of that cell type are observable. For example, in a developing
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mammalian embryo, as well as in some adult organs, there are mesenchymal stem cells that
look unspecialized. But their fate to become muscle, fat, tendon, or other connective tissue
cells has already been determined.
❖ Differentiation is the process by which different types of cells arise from less specialized cells,
leading to cells with specific structures and functions. For example, mesenchymal stem cells
differentiate to become the cells listed above.
❖ Morphogenesis (Greek for “origin of form”) is the organization and spatial distribution of
differentiated cells into the multicellular body and its organs. Morphogenesis can occur by cell
division, cell expansion (especially in plants), cell movements, and apoptosis (programmed cell
death).
❖ Growth is the increase in size of the body and its organs by cell division and cell expansion.
Growth can occur by an increase in the number of cells or by the enlargement of existing cells.
Growth continues throughout the individual’s life in some organisms, but reaches a more or
less stable end point in others.
https://www.macmillanhighered.com/BrainHoney/Resource/6716/digital_first_content/trunk/test/
hillis2e/hillis2e_ch14_2.html
HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Organ system by which humans reproduce and bear live offspring. Provided all organs are present,
normally constructed, and functioning properly, the essential features of human reproduction are (1)
liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a specific time in the reproductive cycle, (2) internal fertilization of
the ovum by spermatozoa, or sperm cells, (3) transport of the fertilized ovum to the uterus, or womb,
(4) implantation of the blastocyst, the early embryo developed from the fertilized ovum, in the wall of
the uterus, (5) formation of a placenta and maintenance of the unborn child during the entire period
of gestation, (6) birth of the child and expulsion of the placenta, and (7) suckling and care of the child,
with an eventual return of the maternal organs to virtually their original state.
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What’s more
ACTIVITY:
1. Identify and Describe the types of Life cycles.

Types of Life Cycles Description
1.
2.
3.
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Lesson
2 Nutrition
What I need to know
Learning Competency:
Compare and contrast the following processes in
plants and animals: Nutrition. (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
Specific Learning Outcomes:

• define nutrient and cite the nutritional requirements of plants and animals
• enumerate and describe the main stages of food processing;
• describe the organs involved in food processing in the human digestive system and their roles;
• summarize the mechanisms of digestion, absorption, and delivery of nutrients into cells;
What I know
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: Definition of Terms
1. Nutrient 11. Proteins 21. Absorption

2. Autotrophs 12. Fats 22. Elimination
3. Heterotrophs 13. Amino acids
4. Symplast route 14. Fatty acids
5. Apoplasts route 15. Phagocytosis
6. Root hairs 16. Pinocytosis
7. Root nodules 17. Digestive system
8. Mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza 18. Endocytosis
9. Calorie 19. Ingestion
10. Carbohydrates 20. Digestion
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What’s new
PRE-ACTIVITY:
https://www.evolvingsciences.com/Photosynthesis%20worksheet%20.html
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What’s is it
INTRODUCTION:
PLANT NUTRITION
Nutrient – refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of an organism. The two
types of organisms based on the mode of nutrition are:
A. autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and chemicals to produce their
own food. Examples: plants; chemosynthetic bacteria.
B. heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food and obtain their energy from
other organisms. Examples: animals, fungi.
The nutritional requirements of plants:
A. water
B. carbon dioxide
C. Further, note that water and carbon dioxide are the raw materials needed for
D. photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert the energy from sunlight into
E. chemical energy.
F. essential nutrients or elements – which include macronutrients which are normally
G. required in amounts above 0.5% of the plant’s dry weight; and micronutrients which
H. are required in minute or trace amounts;
I. examples of macronutrients: C, H, O, N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S
J. examples of micronutrients: Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Co, Mo
The routes for the absorption of water and minerals across plant roots:
A. symplast route – through plasmodesmata
B. apoplast route – along cell walls
Note that the water and minerals from the soil need to reach the conducting tissues of
plants, specifically the xylem
ANIMAL NUTRITION
A Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of energy contained in food. It specifically refers
to the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of water by 1oC
(1.8oF). The greater the number of Calories in a quantity of food, the greater energy it contains
(Johnson and Raven, 1996).
THE NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF ANIMALS:
I. Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body. These are usually obtained
from grains, cereals, breads, fruits, and vegetables. On average, carbohydrates contain 4 Calories per
gram.
II. Proteins – can also be used as an energy source but the body mainly uses these as building materials
for cell structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles, and bones. Proteins come from dairy
products, poultry, fish, meat, and grains. Like carbohydrates, proteins also contain 4 Calories per gram.
III. Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and other cellular structures; also used
to insulate nervous tissue, and also serve as an energy source. Fats also contain certain fat- soluble
vitamins that are important for good health. Fats are obtained from oils, margarine, butter, fried foods,
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meat, and processed snack foods. They contain a higher amount of energy per gram than
carbohydrates or proteins, about 9 Calories per gram.
IV. Essential Nutrients – include substances that animals can only get from the foods they eat because
they could not be synthesized inside the body. These include:
A. Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of proteins and enzymes; among the 20 amino acids,
eight could not be synthesized by humans: lysine, tryptophan, threonine, methionine, phenylalanine,
leucine, isoleucine and valine.
B. Essential fatty acids – used for making special membrane lipids; an example is linoleic acid in
humans.
C. Vitamins – organic molecules required in small amounts for normal metabolism; examples include
fat-soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-soluble Vitamins B, B2, B3, B12, C.
THE MAIN STAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING:
A. Ingestion – the act of eating or feeding; this is coupled with the mechanical breakdown of
food into smaller pieces allowing for a greater surface area for chemical digestion.
B. Digestion – breakdown of food into particles, then into nutrient molecules small enough to be
Chemical digestion by enzymes involves breaking of chemical bonds through the
addition of water, i.e., enzymatic hydrolysis
C. Absorption – passage of digested nutrients and fluid across the tube wall and into the
body fluids; the cells take up (absorb) small molecules such as amino acids and simple
sugars.
D. Elimination –expulsion of the undigested and unabsorbed materials from the end of the
gut.
THE ORGANS INVOLVED IN FOOD PROCESSING IN THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
A. The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
I. Oral Cavity – it is where food is initially chewed into shreds by the teeth, and mixed with saliva by
the tongue. Saliva is secreted into the mouth by three pairs of salivary glands located above the upper
jaw and below the lower jaw.
II. Pharynx –the region in the back of the throat that serves as the entrance to the esophagus that
connects to the stomach and trachea (windpipe) that serves as airway to the lungs. To block breathing
as food leaves the pharynx, a flap-like valve (the epiglottis) and the vocal cords close off the trachea.
III. Esophagus – connects the pharynx with the stomach. No digestion takes place within the esophagus
but the contractions within its muscular wall propel the food past a sphincter, into the stomach. The
rhythmic waves of contraction of the smooth muscle wall of the esophagus are called peristaltic
contractions or peristalsis. The esophagus is about 25 cm (10 in.) long.
B. The Stomach
I. The stomach is a muscular, stretchable sac located just below the diaphragm. It has three important
functions. First, it mixes and stores ingested food. Second, it secretes gastric juice that helps dissolve
and degrade the food, particularly proteins. Third, it regulates the passage of food into the small
intestine.
II. The gastric juice is a combination of HCl and acid-stable proteases.
III. The churning action of the stomach together with the potent acidity of the gastric juice convert
food into a thick, liquid mixture called chyme.
C. Small Intestine
I. The small intestine is approximately 6 meters long and is composed of three regions: the duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum.
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II. It is where most enzymatic hydrolysis of the macromolecules from food occurs. The complete
digestion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins occurs in the duodenum, about the first 25 cm. of the
small intestine.
III. The rest of the small intestine is devoted to absorbing water and the products of digestion into the
bloodstream.
IV. Absorption of the end products of digestion takes place in the ileum, the surface area of which is
increased by villi and microvilli.
D. The Accessory Digestive Organs
I. Pancreas, Liver, and Gallbladder – review the functions discussed in previous meeting.
E. The Large Intestine or Colon
I. The large intestine is much shorter than the small intestine, about 1 meter.
II. It concentrates and stores undigested matter by absorbing mineral ions and water. A small amount
of fluid, sodium, and vitamin K are absorbed through its walls.
III. Unlike the small intestine, it does not coil up and does not have villi and has only one thirtieth of
the absorptive surface area of the small intestine.
IV. Many bacteria live and thrive within the large intestine where they help process undigested
material into the final excretory product, feces.
F. The Rectum and Anus
I. The rectum is a short extension of the large intestine and is the final segment of the digestive tract.
It is where the compacted undigested food from the colon are pushed via peristaltic contractions.
II. The distention of the rectum triggers expulsion of feces.
III. The anus is the terminal opening of the digestive system through which feces are
expelled.
What’s more
ACTIVITY:
1. Illustrate the steps in the digestive system. Label the organs involved and specify their functions.
What’s I’ve learned
POST QUIZ:
1. Give three examples of nutrient deficiencies in plants and the corresponding symptoms.
2. Research on examples of parasitic plants and predator plants. Give an example for each. What
structural adaptations are present in these plants that allow them to acquire nutrition through
parasitism and predation?
3. What contributes to the absorption capacity of the small intestine?
4. Why doesn’t gastric juice destroy the stomach cells that make it?
5. What are the cells making up the gastric glands of the stomach
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Lesson Gas Exchange
3
What I need to know
Learning Competency
The learners shall be able to compare and contrast gas exchange in plants and animals.
STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1
Specific Learning Outcomes

• state some basic principles IN gas exchange;
• describe the structures for gas exchange in plants and animals;
• describe the organs in the human respiratory system and their roles;
• discuss the coordination of gas exchange and circulation;
What I know
1. Respiration
2. Cellular Respiration
3. Positive pressure breathing
4. Negative pressure breathing
5. Air sacs
6. Oxygen Transport
7. Carbon dioxide transport
What’s new
PRE-ACTIVITY:
1. Identify the Organs of the Respiratory System and its functions.

2. Identify the Plant structures responsible for gas exchange and its functions.
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What’s is it
INTRODUCTION:
Plants obtain the gases they need through their leaves. They require oxygen for respiration and carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis.
The gases diffuse into the intercellular spaces of the leaf through pores, which are normally on the
underside of the leaf - stomata. From these spaces they will diffuse into the cells that require them.
Stomatal opening and closing depends on changes in the turgor of the guard cells. When water flows
into the guard cells by osmosis, their turgor increases and they expand. Due to the relatively inelastic
inner wall, the guard cells bend and draw away from each other, so the pore opens. If the guard cells
loose water the opposite happens and the pore closes. The guard cells lower their water potential to
draw in water from the surrounding epidermal cells, by actively accumulating potassium ions. This
requires energy in the form of ATP which, is supplied by the chloroplasts in the guard cells.
Respiration occurs throughout the day and night, providing the plant with a supply of energy.
Photosynthesis can only occur during sunlight hours so it stops at night. A product of respiration is
carbon dioxide.
This can be used directly by the plant in photosynthesis.
However, during the day, photosynthesis can be going 10 or even 20 times faster than respiration
(depending on light intensity), so the stomata must stay open so that the plant has enough carbon
dioxide, most of which diffuses in from the external atmosphere.
https://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/biology/gas-exchange/revise-it/gas-exchange-in-
plants#:~:text=Plants%20obtain%20the%20gases%20they,underside%20of%20the%20leaf%20%2D%
20stomata.
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In animals, gas exchange follows the same general pattern as in plants. Oxygen and carbon dioxide
move by diffusion across moist membranes. In simple animals, the exchange occurs directly with the
environment. But with complex animals, such as mammals, the exchange occurs between the
environment and the blood. The blood then carries oxygen to deeply embedded cells and transports
carbon dioxide out to where it can be removed from the body
Earthworms exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide directly through their skin. The oxygen diffuses into
tiny blood vessels in the skin surface, where it combines with the red pigment hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin binds loosely to oxygen and carries it through the animal’s bloodstream. Carbon dioxide
is transported back to the skin by the hemoglobin.
Terrestrial arthropods have a series of openings called spiracles at the body surface. Spiracles open
into tiny air tubes called tracheae, which expand into fine branches that extend into all parts of the
arthropod body.
Fishes use outward extensions of their body surface called gills for gas exchange. Gills are flaps of
tissue richly supplied with blood vessels. As a fish swims, it draws water into its mouth and across the
gills. Oxygen diffuses out of the water into the blood vessels of the gill, while carbon dioxide leaves
the blood vessels and enters the water passing by the gills.
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/biology/biology/gas-exchange/mechanisms-for-gas-
exchange#:~:text=In%20animals%2C%20gas%20exchange%20follows,occurs%20directly%20with%2
0the%20environment.&text=Hemoglobin%20binds%20loosely%20to%20oxygen%20and%20carries%
20it%20through%20the%20animal's%20bloodstream.
What’s I’ve learned
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of these is the correct equation for photosynthesis?

a. carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
b. glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
c. carbon dioxide + glucose → water + oxygen
2. Which gas is released when plant cells respire aerobically?

a. Oxygen
b. Carbon dioxide
c. Nitrogen
3. When does respiration happen in plants?

a. All the time
b. Only during the day
c. Only during the night
4. There is an overall uptake of carbon dioxide and release of oxygen by a plant under certain
conditions. Which statement about such a plant is correct?
a. Respiration is happening faster than photosynthesis
b. Photosynthesis and respiration are happening at the same rate
c. Photosynthesis is happening faster than respiration
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5. How do plants obtain the carbon dioxide they need for photosynthesis?
a. By osmosis
b. By diffusion
c. By active transport.
6. Which of these is an adaptation of leaves for efficient gas exchange?

a. Tightly packed spongy mesophyll cells
b. A waxy cuticle on the upper surface of the leaf
c. Tiny pores, called stomata, in the lower epidermis
7. What happens to stomata in the light?

a. Their guard cells absorb water by osmosis, become turgid and the stomata open
b. Their guard cells absorb water by osmosis, become flaccid and the stomata close
c. Their guard cells lose water by osmosis, become turgid and the stomata open
8. When is the movement of carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapour at the surface of the leaf likely
to be greatest?
a. When the stomata are open
b. When the stomata are closed
c. When it is cool and humid
9. What colour would hydrogencarbonate indicator be at high concentrations of carbon dioxide?

a. Purple
b. Red
c. Yellow
10. Net gas exchange from a leaf can be investigated using hydrogencarbonate indicator in a stoppered
tube. Why might one of the test leaves be boiled first?
a. To see if high temperatures increase the rate of photosynthesis and respiration
b. To show that a leaf has to be alive for it to affect the amount of carbon dioxide in the tube
c. To remove the waxy cuticle so that gas exchange can happen more quickly
23
Lesson Transport and Circulation
4
What I need to know
Learning Competency
The learners compare and contrast transport and circulation in plants and
animals (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)

• explain the functions of structures in animal circulation; and
• trace the path of blood in the systemic and the pulmonary circulation
• describe the transport of substances in xylem and phloem;
What I know
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: Define the following words.
1. Xylem
2. Phloem
3. Diffusion
4. Cell transport
5. Circulation
6. Arteries
7. Veins
8. Valves
9. Systemic Circulation
10. Pulmonary Circulation
What’s new
PRE ACTIVITY:
1. What are the functions of xylem and phloem?
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What’s is it
INTRODUCTION:
Plants have two systems for the transportation of substances, by using two different types of transport
tissue. Water and solutes are transported by the xylem from the roots to the leaves, while food is
transported by the phloem from the leaves to the rest of the plant. Transpiration is the process by
which water evaporates from the leaves, therefore causing more water to be drawn up from the roots.
Plants have adaptations in order to reduce the excessive loss of water.
Xylem and phloem
There are two transport systems present in the plant to move food, water and minerals through their
roots, stems and leaves. These systems make use continuous tubes called the xylem and phloem which
are also known as vascular bundles.
Water on the surface of spongy and palisade cells (inside the leaf) evaporates and then diffuses out
of the leaf. This is called transpiration.
https://sites.google.com/site/biopt14operationplant/plant-transport-
system#:~:text=There%20are%20two%20transport%20systems,also%20known%20as%20vascular%2
0bundles.
25
Transport systems are crucial to survival. Unicellular organisms rely on simple diffusion for transport
of nutrients and removal of waste. Multicellular organisms have developed more complex circulatory
systems.
There are two types of circulatory systems found in animals: open and closed circulatory systems.
Open circulatory systems
In an open circulatory system, blood vessels transport all fluids into a cavity. When the animal
moves, the blood inside the cavity moves freely around the body in all directions. The blood bathes
the organs directly, thus supplying oxygen and removing waste from the organs. Blood flows at a
very slow speed due to the absence of smooth muscles, which, as you learnt previously, are
responsible for contraction of blood vessels. Most invertebrates (crabs, insects, snails etc.) have an
open circulatory system
The human circulatory system involves the pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems. The
pulmonary circulatory system consists of blood vessels that transport deoxygenated blood from the
heart to the lungs and return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. In the systemic
circulatory system, blood vessels transport oxygenated blood from the heart to various organs in the
body and return deoxygenated blood to the heart.
Pulmonary circulation system
In the pulmonary circulation system, deoxygenated blood leaves the heart through the right
ventricle and is transported to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery is the only
artery that carries deoxygenated blood. It carries blood to the capillaries where carbon dioxide
diffuses out of the blood into the alveoli (lung cells) and then into the lungs, where it is exhaled. At
the same time, oxygen diffuses into the alveoli, and then enters the blood and is returned to the left
atrium of the heart via the pulmonary vein.
Systemic circulation
Systemic circulation refers to the part of the circulation system that leaves the heart, carrying
oxygenated blood to the body's cells, and returning deoxygenated blood to the heart. Blood leaves
through the left ventricle into the aorta, the body's largest artery. The aorta leads to smaller arteries
26
that supply all organs of the body. These arteries finally branch into capillaries. In the capillaries,
oxygen diffuses from the blood into the cells, and waste and carbon dioxide diffuse out of cells and
into blood. Deoxygenated blood in capillaries then moves into venules that merge into veins, and the
blood is transported back to the heart. These veins merge into two major veins, namely the superior
vena cava and the inferior vena cava (figure:doublecirculation). The movement of blood is indicated
by arrows on the diagram. The deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via the the superior vena
cava. Major arteries supply blood to the brain, small intestine, liver and kidneys. However, systemic
circulation also reaches the other organs, including the muscles and skin
Pulmonary circulation system
27
The systemic circulatory system supplies blood to the entire body.
28
Lesson Regulation of Body Fluids
5
What I need to know
Learning Competency
The learners shall be able to describe excretory systems in animals especially
the human urinary system and their functions in homeostasis.
(STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)

• define some key terms related to osmoregulation;
• describe different types of animals based on the osmolarity of their body
fluids in relation to the environment;
• enumerate the three types of nitrogenous wastes in animals;
• enumerate and describe excretory systems in invertebrates;
• characterize the mammalian urinary system and the role of nephrons; and
• analyze the role of the kidneys in the body’s acid-base balance.
What I know
1. Internal Environment 6. Osmoregulators

2. Osmolarity 7. Ammonia
3. Osmosis 8. Urea
4. Osmoregulation 9. Uric acid
5. Osmoconformers 10. Filtration
What’s new
PRE ACTIVITY: Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What are the possible consequences should there be a failure in the ability of the body
to dispose or eliminate toxic metabolic wastes?
2. What are the two types of animals based on the osmolarity of their body fluids in relation to
29
the environment?
3. Identify the three types of nitrogenous wastes excreted by animals.
What’s is it
INTRODUCTION:
Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane into an area that
has a higher solute concentration. Osmotic pressure is the external pressure needed to prevent the
solvent from crossing the membrane. Osmotic pressure depends on the concentration of solute
particles. In an organism, the solvent is water and the solute particles are mainly dissolved salts and
other ions, since larger molecules (proteins and polysaccharides) and nonpolar or hydrophobic
molecules (dissolved gases, lipids) don't cross a semipermeable membrane. To maintain the water
and electrolyte balance, organisms excrete excess water, solute molecules, and wastes.
Osmoregulation Strategies of Different Organisms
Bacteria - When osmolarity increases around bacteria, they may use transport mechanisms to absorb
electrolytes or small organic molecules. The osmotic stress activates genes in certain bacteria that
lead to the synthesis of osmoprotectant molecules.
Protozoa - Protists use contractile vacuoles to transport ammonia and other excretory wastes from
the cytoplasm to the cell membrane, where the vacuole opens to the environment. Osmotic pressure
forces water into the cytoplasm, while diffusion and active transport control the flow of water and
electrolytes.
Plants - Higher plants use the stomata on the underside of leaves to control water loss. Plant cells rely
on vacuoles to regulate cytoplasm osmolarity. Plants that live in hydrated soil (mesophytes) easily
compensate for water lost from transpiration by absorbing more water. The leaves and stem of the
plants may be protected from excessive water loss by a waxy outer coating called the cuticle. Plants
that live in dry habitats (xerophytes) store water in vacuoles, have thick cuticles, and may have
structural modifications (i.e., needle-shaped leaves, protected stomata) to protect against water loss.
Plants that live in salty environments (halophytes) have to regulate not only water intake/loss but also
the effect on osmotic pressure by salt. Some species store salts in their roots so the low water
potential will draw the solvent in via osmosis. Salt may be excreted onto leaves to trap water
molecules for absorption by leaf cells. Plants that live in water or damp environments (hydrophytes)
can absorb water across their entire surface.
Animals - Animals utilize an excretory system to control the amount of water that is lost to the
environment and maintain osmotic pressure. Protein metabolism also generates waste molecules
which could disrupt osmotic pressure. The organs that are responsible for osmoregulation depend on
the species.
Osmoregulation in Humans
In humans, the primary organ that regulates water is the kidney. Water, glucose, and amino acids may
be reabsorbed from the glomerular filtrate in the kidneys or it may continue through the ureters to
the bladder for excretion in urine. In this way, the kidneys maintain the electrolyte balance of the
blood and also regulate blood pressure. Absorption is controlled by the hormones aldosterone,
30
antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and angiotensin II. Humans also lose water and electrolytes via
perspiration.
Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus of the brain monitor changes in water potential, controlling thirst
and secreting ADH. ADH is stored in the pituitary gland. When it is released, it targets the endothelial
cells in the nephrons of the kidneys. These cells are unique because they have aquaporins. Water can
pass through aquaporins directly rather than having to navigate through the lipid bilayer of the cell
membrane. ADH opens the water channels of the aquaporins, allowing water to flow. The kidneys
continue to absorb water, returning it to the bloodstream, until the pituitary gland stops releasing
ADH.
https://www.thoughtco.com/osmoregulation-definition-and-explanation-
4125135#:~:text=Plants%20%2D%20Higher%20plants%20use%20the,vacuoles%20to%20regulate%2
0cytoplasm%20osmolarity.&text=Animals%20%2D%20Animals%20utilize%20an%20excretory,enviro
nment%20and%20maintain%20osmotic%20pressure.
What’s more
ACTIVITY:
1. Identify the structures and functions of the Kidney.
31
Lesson
Immune Systems
6
What I need to know
Learning Competency
The learners shall be able to explain how immune systems work
(STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)

• compare innate and adaptive immune responses;
• define the term “antibody”;
• name the different kinds of antibodies produced by humans; and
• explain the function of each type of antibody.
• explain where T cells come from;
• identify the different types of T cells and
• describe the functions of T cells
What I know
1. Innate immune Response

2. Adaptive immune response
3. Immunity
4. Humoral Response
5. Cell mediated response
6. antibodies
7. antigen
8. infection
What’s new
PRE-ACTIVITY:
1. What are the different types of Immunity?
32
What’s is it
The immune system is typically divided into two categories--innate and adaptive--although these
distinctions are not mutually exclusive.
Innate immunity
Innate immunity refers to nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play immediately or within
hours of an antigen's appearance in the body. These mechanisms include physical barriers such as
skin, chemicals in the blood, and immune system cells that attack foreign cells in the body. The innate
immune response is activated by chemical properties of the antigen.
Adaptive immunity
Adaptive immunity refers to antigen-specific immune response. The adaptive immune response is
more complex than the innate. The antigen first must be processed and recognized. Once an antigen
has been recognized, the adaptive immune system creates an army of immune cells specifically
designed to attack that antigen. Adaptive immunity also includes a "memory" that makes future
responses against a specific antigen more efficient.
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/immunology/tutorials/immunology/page3.html
Human antibodies are classified into five isotypes (IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, and IgE) according to their H
chains, which provide each isotype with distinct characteristics and roles.
33
IgG
IgG is the most abundant antibody isotype in the blood (plasma), accounting for 70-75% of human
immunoglobulins (antibodies). IgG detoxifies harmful substances and is important in the recognition
of antigen-antibody complexes by leukocytes and macrophages. IgG is transferred to the fetus through
the placenta and protects the infant until its own immune system is functional.
IgM
IgM usually circulates in the blood, accounting for about 10% of human immunoglobulins. IgM has a
pentameric structure in which five basic Y-shaped molecules are linked together. B cells produce IgM
first in response to microbial infection/antigen invasion.
Although IgM has a lower affinity for antigens than IgG, it has higher avidity for antigens because of
its pentameric/hexameric structure. IgM, by binding to the cell surface receptor, also activates cell
signaling pathways.
IgA
IgA is abundant in serum, nasal mucus, saliva, breast milk, and intestinal fluid, accounting for 10-15%
of human immunoglobulins. IgA forms dimers (i.e., two IgA monomers joined together). IgA in breast
milk protects the gastrointestinal tract of neonates from pathogens.
IgE
IgE is present in minute amounts, accounting for no more than 0.001% of human immunoglobulins.
Its original role is to protect against parasites. In regions where parasitic infection is rare, IgE is
primarily involved in allergy.
IgD
IgD accounts for less than 1% of human immunoglobulins. IgD may be involved in the induction of
antibody production in B cells, but its exact function remains unknown.
https://ruo.mbl.co.jp/bio/e/support/method/antibody-
isotype.html#:~:text=Human%20antibodies%20are%20classified%20into,with%20distinct%20charact
eristics%20and%20roles.&text=IgG%20is%20the%20most%20abundant,of%20human%20immunogl
obulins%20(antibodies).
T cell: A type of white blood cell that is of key importance to the immune system and is at the core of
adaptive immunity, the system that tailors the body's immune response to specific pathogens. The T
cells are like soldiers who search out and destroy the targeted invaders.
Immature T cells (termed T-stem cells) migrate to the thymus gland in the neck, where they mature
and differentiate into various types of mature T cells and become active in the immune system in
response to a hormone called thymosin and other factors. T-cells that are potentially activated against
the body's own tissues are normally killed or changed ("down-regulated") during this maturational
process.
https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=11300
There are 3 main types of T cells: cytotoxic, helper, and regulatory. Each of them has a different role
in the immune response.
Cytotoxic T cells (CD8+)
Cytotoxic T cells (Tc cells) have a co-receptor called CD8 on their cell surface. CD8 partners with the T
cell receptor and with MHC class I molecules, acting as a sort of bridge. This bridge allows cytotoxic T
cells to recognize normal cells that are infected by a pathogen. When the cytotoxic T cell recognizes
34
the infected cell, it becomes activated and produces molecules that kill the infected cell, destroying
the pathogen in the process.
Helper T cells (CD4+)
Helper T cells (Th cells) have a different co-receptor called CD4 on their cell surface. CD4 also partners
with the T cell receptor but interacts with MHC class II molecules instead of MHC class I molecules.
This allows helper T cells to recognize pathogen peptides that have been displayed by antigen
presenting cells. When helper T cells recognize a peptide on an antigen presenting cell, they become
activated and begin to produce molecules called cytokines that signal to other immune cells.
Regulatory T cells (Treg cells) also have CD4 on their surface, but they do not activate the immune
system like helper T cells do. Instead, regulatory T cells play a protective role by shutting off the
immune response when it is no longer needed. This prevents excessive damage to the normal cells
and tissues in the body. Regulatory T cells suppress the immune response in several ways, including:
• Producing anti-inflammatory cytokines that suppress the immune response

• Releasing molecules that kill activated immune cells
• Changing the way dendritic cells behave so they can't activate T cells
35
https://www.celiackidsconnection.org/2018/05/06/what-are-the-different-types-of-t-
cells/#:~:text=There%20are%203%20main%20types,role%20in%20the%20immune%20response.&te
xt=Cytotoxic%20T%20cells%20(Tc%20cells,as%20a%20sort%20of%20bridge.
What’s more
ACTIVITY:
Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper:

a. Describe when inflammation is good and when it is bad.
b. What are the five hallmarks of inflammation?
c. What is the importance of inflammation in the immune response?
36
Lesson Chemical and Nervous
7 Control
What I need to know
Learning Competency
The learners compare and contrast chemical and nervous control in plants and
animals (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)

• explain how animals respond to environmental stimuli;
• describe the mechanisms of chemical and nervous control in animals;
• explain how plants respond to environmental stimuli; and
• describe the mechanisms of chemical control in plants.
What I know
1. Nervous System 11. Myelin Sheath

2. Peripheral Nervous System 12. Neurons
3. Central Nervous System 13. Hypothalamus
4. Brain 14. Tropisms
5. Spinal Cord 15. Thermoreceptors
6. Motor Neurons 16. Pain receptors
7. Sensory Neurons
8. Somatic Nervous System
9. Autonomic Nervous System
10. Axon
What’s new
PRE-ACTIVITY:
1. How animals respond to environmental stimuli?

2. How plants respond to environmental stimuli?
37
What’s is it
INTRODUCTION:
Animal behaviour is controlled by a nervous system, which is comprised of special nerve cells called
neurons. The nervous system operates according to the same general principles in all types of animals.
The nervous system is stimulated from the environment, through sensory receptors. A stimulus is any
form of energy that can be detected by the body. A signal is the physical coding of information (e.g.,
a message) capable of transmission through environment. Sensory processing includes all central acts
of information processing, which link the initial stages of sensory reception with the creation of
subjective sensory perception. Animals normally only respond to stimuli which they select; they filter
out certain stimuli that surround them, and react to others they choose to accept.
TYPES OF STIMULI
Stimuli can be of many types:
· Visual - what the animal sees

· Auditory -what the animal hears
· Tactile - what the animal feels
· Chemical - what the animal smells or tastes.
Types of sensory receptors Example of function
Mechano Receptors Sense deep touching
Corpuscles in the deep layers of skin Maintaining posture
Stretch receptors in skeletal muscles Senses of hearing and balance
Hair cells of vestibular apparatus and cochlea of
inner ear
Thermo Receptors Monitor external temperature
Ends of sensory neurons in skin Monitor internal temperature
Neurons in hypothalamus
Chemo Receptors Monitor blood oxygen level
Receptor cells in arteries Sense taste
Taste bud receptors Sense smell
Sensor cells in surface layers of the nose
Photo Receptors Sense low light vision
Rod cells in retina Sense bright light and colour
Cone cells in retina
Pain Receptors Awareness of tissue damage
Ends of sensory neurons
Mechano Receptors
Mechanoreceptors are those which detect movement. Sound is generally detected through
mechanoreceptors which detect vibrations in air or water. Sound waves cause vibrations in air or
38
water particles, which are then detected by mechanisms such as vibration sensitive hairs (in the limb
joints of many arthropods) or sensitive membranes in the ears of mammals.
Thermo Reception
This refers to the sensitivity of nerve endings to temperature. The mechanism is similar to
chemoreception; but has not been studied and understood as extensively as chemoreception. Birds
are thought to have relatively few thermo-receptors compared with mammals. Birds do have thermo-
receptors on their beak & tongue though. Many reptiles have well developed thermo-receptors, both
on the skin, and even in their brain. Some snakes hunt their prey using body heat. Heat travels through
the atmosphere as infra-red (long wavelength) electromagnetic radiation, and is detected by cells
sensitive to changes in temperature. Heat receptors are generally deeper in the body than cold
receptors.
Chemo Reception
This is the ability to identify and detect concentrations of chemical substances. Virtually every nerve
cell is a “chemoreceptor” (ie. It reacts to specific substances released by other nerve cells, in a specific
way). There are two types of chemo receptors:
· Exteroceptors – which detect chemicals in the external environment (ie. outside the animal);
· Interoceptors – which detect chemicals within the animal’s body (eg. in the blood, digestive
system, etc
Pheromones
These are chemicals excreted by one animal in order to cause a response in another animal. E.g. The
silkworm moth produces a polyalcohol chemical (known as bombykol) from its abdominal gland, which
attracts males of the species from as much as several kilometres away. Research has found that the
organic chemical for each pheromone varies tremendously depending on what signal it entails.
Taste
Mammals in general can detect four basic tastes: acid, bitter, salt and sweet. In a human, different
parts of the tongue are affected by different tastes. The flavour of food depends upon both taste and
smell.
Examples of Chemical Stimulation:
· Some clams will try to escape when placed in water that has had starfish in it.
· A cat becomes alert and flees when it smells a dog.
· When injured certain fish release a type of pheromone that alerts other fish to danger.
· Many animals release sex pheromones to attract a mate.
Photo Receptors - Sight
Vision in primitive animals might be little more than the simple discrimination of light or darkness. In
more complex animals, vision is however increasingly complex, allowing identification, formation and
resolution of images and colours. Sensory judgement in more complex animals (eg. mammals)
depends upon not only differentiating perceived images, but also the ability to be selective in what is
seen (ie. separating the signal from noise).
https://www.acsedu.com/info/pets/animal-care-and-handling/animal-
perception.aspx#:~:text=The%20nervous%20system%20is%20stimulated,be%20detected%20by%20
39
the%20body.&text=Animals%20normally%20only%20respond%20to,others%20they%20choose%20t
o%20accept.
Plant Responses
Like all organisms, plants detect and respond to stimuli in their environment. Unlike animals, plants
can’t run, fly, or swim toward food or away from danger. They are usually rooted to the soil. Instead,
a plant’s primary means of response is to change how it is growing. Plants also don’t have a nervous
system to control their responses. Instead, their responses are generally controlled by hormones,
which are chemical messenger molecules.
Plant Tropisms
Plant roots always grow downward because specialized cells in root caps detect and respond to
gravity. This is an example of a tropism. A tropism is a turning toward or away from a stimulus in the
environment. Growing toward gravity is called geotropism. Plants also exhibit phototropism, or
growing toward a light source. This response is controlled by a plant growth hormone called auxin. As
shown in Figure below, auxin stimulates cells on the dark side of a plant to grow longer. This causes
the plant to bend toward the light.
Daily and Seasonal Responses
Plants also detect and respond to the daily cycle of light and darkness. For example, some plants open
their leaves during the day to collect sunlight and then close their leaves at night to prevent water
loss. Environmental stimuli that indicate changing seasons trigger other responses. Many plants
respond to the days growing shorter in the fall by going dormant. They suspend growth and
development in order to survive the extreme cold and dryness of winter. Dormancy ensures that seeds
will germinate and plants will grow only when conditions are favorable.
Responses to Disease
Plants don’t have immune systems, but they do respond to disease. Typically, their first line of defense
is the death of cells surrounding infected tissue. This prevents the infection from spreading. Many
plants also produce hormones and toxins to fight pathogens. For example, willow trees produce
salicylic acid to kill bacteria. The same compound is used in many acne products for the same reason.
Exciting new research suggests that plants may even produce chemicals that warn other plants of
threats to their health, allowing the plants to prepare for their own defense. As these and other
responses show, plants may be rooted in place, but they are far from helpless.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_Introductory_
Biology_(CK-12)/09%3A_Plants/9.24%3A_Plant_Responses#:~:text=Plant%20Tropisms,-
Plant%20roots%20always&text=A%20tropism%20is%20a%20turning,plant%20growth%20hormone
%20called%20auxin.
What’s more
ACTIVITY:
1. What are the divisions of the nervous system?

2. Differentiate the functions of the endocrine and the nervous system
40
Lesson Sensory and Motor
8 Mechanisms
What I need to know
Learning Competency
The learners should be able to describe the structures involved in major animal
senses (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)

• describe the five types of sensory receptors;
• illustrate the three types of eyes in animals;
• explain how vision occurs in humans;
• differentiate the parts of the human ear and describe the functions of each
• discuss how the senses of smell and taste detect chemicals.
• describe diverse means of animal locomotion;
• differentiate the three types of skeletal systems: hydrostatic, exoskeleton and endoskeleton
• explain how a muscle contracts.
What I know
1. Photoreceptors 11. Eustachian tube

2. Mechanoreceptors 12. Hydrostatic Skeleton
3. Chemoreceptors 13. Endoskeleton
4. Thermoreceptors 14. Appendicular skeleton
5. Pain receptors
6. Sclera
7. Cornea
8. Conjunctiva
9. Retina
10. Optic Nerve
41
What’s new
PRE-ACTIVITY:
1. how different animals sense their environment. Examples: dogs sniffing chemicals.
Animals Sense their environment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What’s is it
INTRODUCTION
A major role of sensory receptors is to help us learn about the environment around us, or about the
state of our internal environment. Different types of stimuli from varying sources are received and
changed into the electrochemical signals of the nervous system. This process is called sensory
transduction.
Sensation is the activation of sensory receptors at the level of the stimulus. Perception is the central
processing of sensory stimuli into a meaningful pattern involving awareness. Perception is dependent
on sensation, but not all sensations are perceived.
Structural Receptor Types
The cells in the retina that respond to light stimuli are an example of a specialized receptor cell, a
photoreceptor.
An exteroceptor is a receptor that is located near a stimulus in the external environment, such as the
somatosensory receptors that are located in the skin.
An interoceptor is one that interprets stimuli from internal organs and tissues, such as the receptors
that sense the increase in blood pressure in the aorta or carotid sinus.
A proprioceptor is a receptor located near a moving part of the body, such as a muscle or joint capsule,
that interprets the positions of the tissues as they move.
42
Functional Receptor Types
Chemical stimuli can be detected by a chemoreceptors that detect chemical stimuli, such as a
chemicals that lead to the sense of smell.
Physical stimuli, such as pressure and vibration, as well as the sensation of sound and body position
(balance), are interpreted through a mechanoreceptor.
Another physical stimulus that has its own type of receptor is temperature, which is sensed through a
thermoreceptor that is either sensitive to temperatures above (heat) or below (cold) normal body
temperature.
https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/13-1-sensory-receptors/
The three types of eyes that have evolved in the animal kingdom are:
I. Eye cups in flatworms and other invertebrates
II. Compound eyes in insects and arthropods
III. Single lens eyes in squid
THE HUMAN EYE
http://jyssbio5158.weebly.com/the-human-eye.html
43
How hearing is possible in the human ear
The outer ear lobes catch sound waves and channel them to the eardrums. From the eardrum, the
middle ear amplifies the sound wave vibrations to three small bones – the hammer, anvil and stirrup.
The sound waves travel to the oval window. The Eustachian tube equalizes air pressure in the middle
ear and outer ear. The hearing organ is in the inner ear, composed of several channels of fluid wrapped
in a spiral cochlea. This is encased in the bones of the skull. Vibrations in the oval window produce
pressure waves. These waves travel through the upper canal to the tip of the cochlea, enter the lower
canal and fade away. Pressure waves of the upper canal push down to the middle canal and the
membrane below this canal vibrates. These vibrations stimulate hair cells attached to the membrane
by moving them against the overlying tissue. The hair cells are able to develop receptor potentials
causing release of neurotransmitters that induce action potentials in the auditory neurons.
The three types of skeleton
I. Hydrostatic skeleton occurs in a body compartment in which a volume of fluid is held under pressure.
This is common in aquatic and burrowing animals. An example is the Hydra and other invertebrates
with a semi-enclosed body cavity made of a few layers of cells. There is no solid “bone” but the animal
under aquatic pressure can stay upright and move. Earthworms have smooth muscles and fluid-filled
body compartments.
II. Rigid, armor-like coverings characterize an exoskeleton. Muscles are attached inside. Joints are thin
and flexible. The best examples are found in arthropods (insects, crustaceans). When insects grow,
they shed off their old “armor” and grow a new one. Cite other examples such as those in clams and
snails.
III. An endoskeleton consists of rigid but flexible support made of bones, cartilage surrounded by
masses of muscles. In sponges, cells are supported on spicules. The endoskeleton of echinoderms is
made from calcium plates underneath the skin.
What’s more
ACTIVITY:
1. Explain echolocation in bats.

2. Discuss the evolution of the vertebrate eye.
3. Draw the differences among striated or skeletal muscle, smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.
44
Lesson Feedback Mechanisms
9
What I need to know
Learning Competency
The learners should be able to explain how some organisms can maintain steady internal conditions
(STEM_BIO11/12-IVi-j-2)

• explain the need for homeostasis; and
• describe how various organs systems enable homeostasis
• differentiate positive and negative feedback mechanisms
• outline the homeostatic control of temperature regulation, osmotic balance and glucose level
regulation
What I know
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: Define the following terms:
1. Homeostasis
2. Positive feedback mechanism
3. Negative feedback mechanism
4.
What’s new
PRE-ACTIVITY: Answer the following questions.
1. explain why homeostasis is important to organisms.
45
What’s is it
INTRODUCTION:
Animal organs and organ systems constantly adjust to internal and external changes through a process
called homeostasis (“steady state”). Homeostasis means to maintain dynamic equilibrium in the body.
It is dynamic because it is constantly adjusting to the changes that the body’s systems encounter. It is
equilibrium because body functions are kept within specific ranges. Even an animal that is apparently
inactive is maintaining this homeostatic equilibrium.
Homeostatic Process
The goal of homeostasis is the maintenance of equilibrium around a point or value called a set point.
While there are normal fluctuations from the set point, the body’s systems will usually attempt to go
back to this point. A change in the internal or external environment is called a stimulus and is detected
by a receptor; the response of the system is to adjust the deviation parameter toward the set point.
For instance, if the body becomes too warm, adjustments are made to cool the animal. If the blood’s
glucose rises after a meal, adjustments are made to lower the blood glucose level by getting the
nutrient into tissues that need it or to store it for later use.
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
Any homeostatic process that changes the direction of the stimulus is a negative feedback loop. It may
either increase or decrease the stimulus, but the stimulus is not allowed to continue as it did before
the receptor sensed it. In other words, if a level is too high, the body does something to bring it down,
and conversely, if a level is too low, the body does something to make it go up. Hence the term
negative feedback. An example is animal maintenance of blood glucose levels. When an animal has
eaten, blood glucose levels rise. This is sensed by the nervous system. Specialized cells in the pancreas
sense this, and the hormone insulin is released by the endocrine system. Insulin causes blood glucose
levels to decrease, as would be expected in a negative feedback system
Positive Feedback Loop
A positive feedback loop maintains the direction of the stimulus, possibly accelerating it. Few
examples of positive feedback loops exist in animal bodies, but one is found in the cascade of chemical
reactions that result in blood clotting, or coagulation. As one clotting factor is activated, it activates
the next factor in sequence until a fibrin clot is achieved. The direction is maintained, not changed, so
this is positive feedback. Another example of positive feedback is uterine contractions during
childbirth
46
20stomata.
What’s more
ACTIVITY:
1. Identify and describe 10 disorders that result from the disruption of homeostasis.
47
References
Manuals/Modules/Lesson Exemplar
The Commission on Higher Education. Teaching Guide for Senior High School
General Biology 2
Department of Education Central Office. Most Essential Learning Competencies

( MELCs). 2020.
Websites
1.https://www.macmillanhighered.com/BrainHoney/Resource/6716/digital_first_content/trunk/tes
t/hillis2e/hillis2e_ch14_2.html
https://www.evolvingsciences.com/Photosynthesis%20worksheet%20.html
20stomata.
plants#:~:text=Plants%20obtain%20the%20gases%20they,underside%20of%20the
%20leaf%20%2D%
http://jyssbio5158.weebly.com/the-human-eye.html
https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/13-1-sensory-receptors/
48

General Biology 2 Quarter 4

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General Biology 2 Quarter 4

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Senior High School

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

First Edition, 2020

Published by the Department of Education – Division of Cagayan de Oro Schools

Development Team of the Module

Author: CE Jared Zelig V. Betita

Reviewers: Jean S. Macasero, Shirley Merida, Duque Caguindangan, Eleanor Rollan,

Co-Chairperson: Alicia E. Anghay, Ph.D., CESE

Members Lorebina C. Carrasco, OIC-CID Chief

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and reviewed

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

What This Module is About ................................................................................................................... i

What I Know ........................................................................................................................................... iii

What’s More: ……………….………………………………………………………….14

What I Need to Know..................................................................................................16

What’s New: .................................................................................................................17

What’s Is It: Learning Concepts …………………………………………………..18-20

What’s More: ...............................................................................................................20

Lesson 3: Gas Exchange

What I Need to Know..................................................................................................21

What’s New: ..................................................................................................................22

What is It: Learning Concepts…………………………………………………….23-24

What I Have Learned: ………………………………………………………………….24

What I Need to Know..................................................................................................25

What is It: Learning Concept………………………………………………….27-29

Lesson 5: Regulation of Body Fluids

What Is It: Learning Concepts ..................................................................................31

What’s More: …………………………..…………………………………………….32

Lesson 6: Immune Systems

What I Need to Know..................................................................................................33

What Is It: Learning Concepts ..................................................................................34

What’s More: Evolution Evidences………………………………………………….37

What I Need to Know..................................................................................................38

What’s New: .................................................................................................................39

What is It: Learning Concepts………………………………………………………39-41

What’s More: ...............................................................................................................42

Lesson 8: Sensory and Motor Mechanisms

What’s New: .................................................................................................................44

What is It: Learning Concept………………………………………………….44-45

What’s More: Essay ....................................................................................................46

Lesson 9: Feedback Mechanisms

What’s New: ..................................................................................................................47

What is It: Learning Concepts………………………………………………………48

This module demonstrates your understanding of the characteristics of Earth

This module has eleven (10) lessons:

What I Need to Know

Icons of this Module

What I Need to This part contains learning objectives that

What I know This is an assessment as to your level of

What’s New An introduction of the new lesson through

What is It These are discussions of the activities as a

What’s More These are follow-up activities that are in-

What I Have Activities designed to process what you

What I can do These are tasks that are designed to show-

What I need to know

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

1. Asexual Reproduction 11. Haploid

1. Differentiate Asexual Reproduction and Sexual Reproduction.

Animal and Plant Development

FOUR KEY PROCESSES UNDERLIE DEVELOPMENT

The developmental changes an organism undergoes as it progresses from an embryo to mature

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM