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General Biology 1
Quarter 1 - Module 1
Cell: the basic unit of life
1
General Biology 1- Grade 12
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 1 - Module 1: Cell: the basic unit of life
First Edition, 2020
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Management Team
Chairperson: Cherry Mae L. Limbaco, Ph.D., CESO V
Schools Division Superintendent
2
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Table of Contents
First Quarter
Lesson 1: Cell Theory
What I Need to Know ........................................................................................... 14
What‘s New: Guess What? ............................................................................ 15
What Is It: Learning Concepts ......................................................................... 16
What‘s More: Synthesizing Information ............................................................ 17
What‘s New: Reflection....................................................................................... 18
What I Have Learned..................................................................................... 18
What I Can Do: Performance Task and Enrichment Activity ........................ 19
4
What I Need to Know........................................................................................... 30
What‘s New:.......................................................................................................... 30
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 43
Assesment .........................................................................................................................................44
Key to Answers ........................................................................................................................45
References ..................................................................................................................................... 52
What‘s New:.......................................................................................................... 61
What Is It ............................................................................................................... 61
5
What I Know ......................................................................................................... 63
What‘s New:.......................................................................................................... 68
What Is It ............................................................................................................... 68
What‘s New:.......................................................................................................... 81
What Is It ............................................................................................................... 81
Assesment .........................................................................................................................................83
What‘s New:.......................................................................................................... 92
What Is It ............................................................................................................... 92
6
What I Know ......................................................................................................... 95
What‘s New:.......................................................................................................... 97
What Is It ............................................................................................................... 97
What I Have Learned: ................................................................................... 98
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9
Lesson Cell Cycle
5
What’s In
In lesson 4, you have learned about the classification of different cell types
and some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out specialized functions.
In this next topic, you will learn on the phases of cell cycle and their control
points, stages of mitosis/meiosis, comparison and their role in the cell division cycle.
What’s New
Anaphase Metaphase
Cell division (M Phase) Prophase
Cytokinesis Telophase
G1 –cell grows Interphase
G2- prepares for mitosis Mitosis
S-DNA replication
10
The Cell Cycle Coloring Worksheet
Then on the diagram, lightly color the G1 phase light GREEN, the S
phase dark BLUE, the G2 phase light BLUE, and the stages of mitosis VIOLET.
Color the arrows indicating all of the interphases in BLUE. Color the part of the arrow
indicating mitosis PURPLE and the part of the arrow indicating cytokinesis light
VIOLET.
What Is It
Core Concepts:
• All organisms consist of cells and arise from preexisting cells.
• Mitosis is the process by which new cells are generated.
• Meiosis is the process by which gametes are generated for reproduction.
• The Cell Cycle represents all phases in the life of a cell.
• DNA replication (S phase) must precede mitosis so that all daughter cells receive
the same complement of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• The gap phases separate mitosis from S phase. This is the time when molecular
signals mediate the switch in cellular activity.
• Mitosis involves the separation of copied chromosomes into separate cells.
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• Unregulated cell division can lead to cancer.
• Cell cycle checkpoints normally ensure that DNA replication and mitosis occur only
when conditions are favorable and the process is working correctly.
• Mutations in genes that encode cell cycle proteins can lead to unregulated growth,
resulting in tumor formation and ultimately invasion of cancerous cells to other
organs.
The Cell Cycle control system is driven by a built-in clock that can be adjusted by
external stimuli (i.e., chemical messages).
Checkpoint—a critical control point in the Cell Cycle where ‗stop‘ and ‗go-ahead‘
signals can regulate the cell cycle.
• Animal cells have built-in ‗stop‘ signals that halt the cell cycles and checkpoints until
overridden by ‗go-ahead‘ signals. • Three major checkpoints are found in the G1, G2,
and M phases of the Cell Cycle.
Mitosis (apparent division)—is nuclear division; the process by which the nucleus
divides to produce two new nuclei. Mitosis results in two daughter cells that are
genetically identical to each other and to the parental cell from which they came.
Cytokinesis—is the division of the cytoplasm. Both mitosis and cytokinesis last for
around one to two hours.
Prophase—is the preparatory stage, during prophase, centrioles move toward
opposite sides of the nucleus.
12
• Chromosomes first become visible during early prophase as long, thin, and
intertwined filaments but by late prophase, chromosomes are more compacted and
can be clearly discerned as much shorter and rod-like structures.
• As the chromosomes become more distinct, the nucleoli also become more distinct.
By the end of prophase, the nucleoli become less distinct, often disappearing
altogether.
First Meiotic Division The first meiotic division results in reducing the number of
chromosomes (reduction division). In most cases, the division is accompanied by
cytokinesis.
In addition, the nucleoli disappear, and the nuclear membrane begins to break down.
Metaphase I—The spindle apparatus is completely formed and the microtubules are
attached to the centromere regions of the homologues. The synapsed tetrads are
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found aligned at the metaphase plate (the equatorial plane of the cell) instead of only
replicated chromosomes.
Telophase I—The dyads complete their migration to the poles. New nuclear
membranes may form. In most species, cytokinesis follows, producing two daughter
cells. Each has a nucleus containing only one set of chromosomes (haploid level) in
a replicated form.
Second Meiotic Division The events in the second meiotic division are quite similar to
mitotic division. The difference lies, however, in the number of chromosomes that
each daughter cell receives. While the original chromosome number is maintained in
mitosis, the number is reduced to half in meiosis.
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Disorders and Diseases
What’s More
Direction: Complete the chart by noting what occurs in each phase of the cell cycle.
Gap O (GO)
Gap 1 (G1)
Interphase
S Phase
Gap 2 (G2)
Prophase
Mitosis or M
Phase Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis C
15
What I Have Learned
Direction: The diagram below shows cells in various phases of the cell cycle. Note
the cells are not arranged in the order in which the cell cycle occurs. Use the
diagram to answer questions 1-6. Write you answer in CAPITAL letters.
2. _ _Prophase 5. _ Anaphase
What I Can Do
Direction: Gene mutations in a cell can result in uncontrolled cell division, called
cancer. Exposure of cells to certain chemicals and radiation increases mutations
and thus increases the chance of cancer. Research on the causes of cancers and
disorders/diseases that result from the malfunction of the cell during the cell cycle
and answer the following questions.
1. Define cancer
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _ .
16
Summary
The importance of cell cycle is very evident that the growth and
sustainability of multicellular organisms depend on this process. Cells that are
damaged and lost will be replenished when cells divide. Errors in mitosis lead to an
incorrect copy of the DNA which may produce deadly functional consequences
depending on the error. The positive correlation with the malfunction of these
processes to the onset of major diseases such as cancer, stroke, atherosclerosis,
inflammation, and some neurodegenerative disorders in increasingly proven in
various studies.
17
Assessment: (Post-Test)
Direction: Select the letter of your choice. Write it in CAPITAL letters. Your answers should be
written on a separate sheet of paper.
44
9. Which of the following is an example of passive transport which occurs when particles move
from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration?
A. Phagocytosis
B. Pinocytosis
C. Diffusion
D. Osmosis
10. This process utilizes additional metabolic energy against the concentration gradient to move
molecules across the membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration.
A. Active Transport
B. Passive Transport
C. Osmosis
D. Exocytosis
• Learning Competencies:
1. Describe the structural components of the cell membrane
(STEM_BIO11/12-Ig-h-11)
2. Relate the structure and composition of the cell membrane to its function
(STEM_BIO11/12-Ig-h-12)
3. Explain transport mechanisms in cells (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated
transport, active transport) (STEM_BIO11/12-Ig-h-13)
4. Differentiate exocytosis and endocytosis (STEM_BIO11/12-Ig-h-14)
• Performance Standards:
The learners should be able to construct a cell membrane model from
indigenous or recyclable materials.
• Introduction:
With the pandemic today in the Philippines, you can just imagine our
Cagayan de Oro‘s front liners and law enforcers at the check points of a
city or security guards at the mall entrances (Fig. 7.a) as plasma
membranes (cell membranes) which have a lot of things to do such as
permitting who‘ll enter the establishment (represents the cell) or not and
even exiting is checked as well; Carrying goods in a truck or individuals on
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a motorcycle towards a particular cordoned area which depicts different
means or ways on how materials are transported in and out of the cell -
thus the transport mechanisms.
46
Plasma membrane (Cell Membrane) plays a vital role in the transport
mechanisms and separates the living cell from its surroundings. To perform
these roles, it needs lipids, which make a semi-permeable barrier between
the cell and its environment. It also needs proteins, which are involved in
cross-membrane transport and cell communication, and carbohydrates
(sugars and sugar chains), which decorate both the proteins and lipids and
help cells recognize each other.
Fig. 7.a Even in a mall or at the checkpoints, the people and objects move from one
location to another; they cross or are contained within certain boundaries. Analogously, a
cell membrane‘s functions involve movement within the cell and across the boundaries in
the process of intracellular and intercellular activities. Just like the law enforcers or security
guards, they allow some substances to pass through, but not others.
What I Know
_1. Which plasma membrane component can be either found on its surface or
embedded in the membrane structure?
a. protein
b. cholesterol
c. carbohydrate
d. phospholipid
_2. What is the primary function of carbohydrates attached to the exterior of cell
membranes?
a. identification of the cell
b. flexibility of the membrane
c. strengthening the membrane
d. channels through membrane
47
_3. Which characteristic of a phospholipid contributes to the fluidity of the
membrane?
a. its head
b. cholesterol
c. a saturated fatty acid tail
d. double bonds in the fatty acid tail
_5. Carbohydrates is found outside the surface of the cell and bounded with?
a. lipid or protein
b. phospholipid
c. glycoprotein
d. glycolipid
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What’s In
Fig. 7.c. In 1935, Davson-Danielli, the sandwich model of membrane structure stated that the
membrane was made up of a phospholipid bilayer sandwiched between two protein layers.
49
Fig. 7.d. In 1972, S. J. Singer and G. Nicolson proposed that the membrane is a mosaic of proteins
dispersed within the bilayer, with only the hydrophilic regions exposed to water.
Fig. 7.e.
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• As temperatures cool, membranes switch from a fluid state to a solid state.
• The temperature at which a membrane solidifies depends on the types of lipids.
• Membranes rich in unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid than those rich in
saturated fatty acids. (Fig. 7.f.)
• Membranes must be fluid to work properly; they are usually about as fluid as salad
Oil.
Fig. 7.f. The type of hydrocarbon tails in phospholipids – Affects the fluidity of the cell membrane
Fluid Viscous
51
Structural Component of the Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
Terminology:
Amphiphilic or Amphipathic
• molecule possessing a polar or charged area and a nonpolar or uncharged area
capable of interacting with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic environments
Glycolipid
• combination of carbohydrates and lipids
Glycoprotein
• combination of carbohydrates and proteins
Hydrophilic
• molecule with the ability to bond with water; ―water-loving‖
Hydrophobic
• molecule that does not have the ability to bond with water; ―water-hating‖
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Integral protein
• protein integrated into the membrane structure that interacts extensively with the
hydrocarbon chains of membrane lipids and often spans the membrane; these
proteins can be removed only by the disruption of the membrane by detergents
Peripheral protein
• protein found at the surface of a plasma membrane either on its exterior or
interior side; these proteins can be removed (washed off of the membrane) by a
high-salt wash
What’s New
2. Watch and Listen carefully to the video and be able to recognize and relate to
each attributes of the structural components of the membrane.
3. Reflect on your life experiences and relate them to the lesson in the video so that
you will be able to write a story analogous to the structural components of the cell
membrane.
What Is It
• Q & A Activity:
2. Are there structural components involved in the membrane that are affected from
the rise and fall of the temperature? What are those structures?
3. What does Fig. 7.f imply regarding the fatty acid or hydrocarbon tail‘s shape when
compared and contrasted in relation with transport mechanism? Explain your
answer.
53
What’s More
2. Watch and Listen carefully for you to be able to make a rough draft sketch of the
individual structural components of the membrane through the video clip.
3. Prepare your final draft sketch to me with labels of the indigenous /recyclable
materials you will utilize for each of the structural components for the next activity.
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What I Can Do
• Performance Activity:
1. Prepare your final draft sketch with labels of the indigenous /recyclable materials
that you will utilize for each of the structural components for this activity.
2. Prepare your indigenous /recyclable materials and tools kits to start constructing
the cell membrane model.
3. Set your output on a 2x2 sturdy and used illustration board or any platform.
4. Keep your output in a safe place and submit it on the exact date of submission to
be announced by your teacher.
What I Know
_2. What is the primary function of carbohydrates attached to the exterior of cell
membranes?
a. identification of the cell
b. flexibility of the membrane
c. strengthening the membrane
d. channels through membrane
55
_3. Cellular Signaling relation to the Plasma Membrane is….
a. to protect intracellular components from the extracellular environment.
b. to enclose and define the borders of the cell
c. to transmit signals via complex proteins
d. to transport materials into or out of the cell
_5. Vital for cellular signalling processes that influence tissue and organ
formation
a. membrane markers
b. membrane receptors
c. glycoprotein
d. glycolipid
Provide the the Funtions related to the Structures and Compositions of the Cell
Membrane inside the empty blanks.
6._ _ _ _
Phospholipid Bilayer
_ _ _ _
.7. _ _
Membrane Markers
_ _ _ _
8._ _ _ _
Cytoskeleton
_ _ _ _
9._ _ _ _
Transmembrane Protein
_ _ _ _
10. _ _ _ _
Membrane Receptors
_ _ _ _
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What’s In
The plasma membrane protects the cell from its external environment,
mediates cellular transport, and transmits cellular signals.
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Cellular Signaling/ Recognition’s relation to the Plasma Membrane
Among the most sophisticated functions of the plasma membrane is its ability
to transmit signals via complex proteins. These proteins can be receptors, which
work as receivers of extracellular inputs and as activators of intracellular processes,
or markers, which allow cells to recognize each other.
Terminology:
Receptor
• A protein on a cell wall that binds with specific molecules so that they can be
absorbed into the cell.
58
Fig. 7.g. Detailed Image of Cell Membrane Structure in a Cell
59
What’s New
• Activity:
Identify the structural components of the cell membrane and provide the boxes with
the best answers
1.
2.
8.
3.
4. 6. 7.
5.
What Is It
• Q & A Activity:
1. Can you remember all the structural components of a cell membrane and be able
to list them down? If so, just list down at least 10 along with its functions.
60
What’s More
1. A video link is provided ; ―Inside the Cell Membrane‖ by Amoeba Sisters (Feb 28,
2018), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qBCVVszQQNs
2. Watch and Listen carefully for you to be able to associate the components and
structures of the cell membrane to your household.
1. Provide insights on how the structures and components of the cell membrane is
related to its function with regards to the Celular Signalling/Recognition.
2. Give your Take Aways on Cellular Transport Mechanisms‘ relation to the Plasma
Membrane emphasizing more on its function.
What I Can Do
• Performance Activity:
1. Craft a task plan on a long bond paper regarding the tasks on what functions you
can contribute to your household during this time of crisis. Include also listing down
the house members functions contributing in your home.
2. Document this task in a week. Photos included in a separate paper or soft copy.
61
Template (example)
PARENT/GUARDIAN
SUN MON TUE WED THU FRI SAT
Printed name,
01/21/20 _/_/20 _/_/20 _/_/20 _/_/20 _/_/20 _/_/20 Signature and Date
PortGAs D. Ace
-swept -father
-sanitized -ate Sakura
outside Portgas
AM the
the
mopped the
vertical
bathroom floor with
home planted
disinfectanct
grounds pechay.
Sun 1/8/20
PortGAs D. Ace
-kuya
-mother
Senku
-washed Tsaunade
-threw bathed
PM the dishes sterilized
garbage Penduko
the
our dog
utensils
Sun 1/8/20
3. Keep your output in a safe place and send it on the exact date of submission to be
announced by your teacher.
What I Know
62
_3. Hydrocarbons dissolve in the lipid bilayer, except for…
a. pass the membrane
b. hydrophobic
c. non polar
d. polar
_5. Moves molecules from high to low regions of concentration with the
transmembrane protein
a. facilitated
b. active
c. osmosis
d. diffusion
Provide the right answers after the number in the boxes below for the difference
between Endocytosis and Exocytosis.
10. Involved
63
What’s In
Plasma membranes must allow certain substances to enter and leave a cell,
and prevent some harmful materials from entering and some essential materials
from leaving. In other words, plasma membranes are selectively permeable—they
allow some substances to pass through, but not others. If they were to lose this
selectivity, the cell would no longer be able to sustain itself, and it would be
destroyed. Some cells require larger amounts of specific substances. They must
have a way of obtaining these materials from extracellular fluids. This may happen
passively, as certain materials move back and forth, or the cell may have special
mechanisms that facilitate transport. Some materials are so important to a cell that it
spends some of its energy, hydrolyzing adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to obtain
these materials. Red blood cells use some of their energy doing just that. Most cells
spend the majority of their energy to maintain an imbalance of sodium and
potassium ions between the cell's interior and exterior, as well as on protein
synthesis.
Selective Permeability
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Fig. 7.h. molecular view of the cell membrane. Intrinsic proteins penetrate and bind tightly to the
lipid bilayer, which is made up largely of phospholipids and cholesterol and which typically is between
4 and 10 nanometers (nm; 1 nm = 10−9 metre) in thickness. Extrinsic proteins are loosely bound to the
hydrophilic (polar) surfaces, which face the watery medium both inside and outside the cell. Some
intrinsic proteins present sugar side chains on the cell's outer surface. 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc.
The plasma membrane's exterior surface is not identical to its interior surface.
Recall that plasma membranes are amphiphilic: They have hydrophilic and
hydrophobic regions. This characteristic helps move some materials through the
membrane and hinders the movement of others. Non-polar and lipid-soluble material
with a low molecular weight can easily slip through the membrane's hydrophobic lipid
core. Substances such as the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K readily pass
65
through the plasma membranes in the digestive tract and other tissues. Fat-soluble
drugs and hormones also gain easy entry into cells and readily transport themselves
into the body‘s tissues and organs. Oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules have no
charge and pass through membranes by simple diffusion.
Polar substances present problems for the membrane. While some polar
molecules connect easily with the cell's outside, they cannot readily pass through the
plasma membrane's lipid core. Additionally, while small ions could easily slip through
the spaces in the membrane's mosaic, their charge prevents them from doing so.
Ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride must have special means of
penetrating plasma membranes. Simple sugars and amino acids also need the help
of various transmembrane proteins (channels) to transport themselves across
plasma membranes.
Fig. 7.i. Substances highly impermeable to cross membrane like large uncharged polar molecules
(glucose and fructose), charged molecules and finally ALL IONS. But, Transport proteins are used to
transport ions across membrane.
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The Transport Mechanisms
1. DIFFUSION
Passive movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of
low concentration.
(Concentration gradient is the difference in concentration between the two
regions)
Small, uncharged molecules like O2, CO2 and H2O can move easily through the
membrane.
Works well over short distances. Once molecules enter the cell, the rate of
diffusion slows.
Limits cell size.
Fig. 7.j. Diffusion through a permeable membrane moves a substance from a high concentration area
(extracellular fluid, in this case) down its concentration gradient (into the cytoplasm).
2. OSMOSIS
Diffusion of the solvent across a semi-permeable membrane separating two
solutions. (Diffusion of water)
Water molecules move from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration.
Direction depends on the relative concentration of water molecules on either side
of the cell membrane.
Isotonic: Water inside the cell equals the water outside the cell and equal
amounts of water move in and out of the cell.
Hypotonic: Water outside the cell is greater than that inside the cell, water moves
into the cell, may cause cell to burst (lysis)
Hypertonic: Water inside the cell is greater than outside. Water moves out of the
cell, may cause the cell to shrink (plasmolysis)
67
Fig. 7.k. Movement of water molecules from high concentration to low concentration, through a semi-
permeable membrane.
Fig. 7.l. Facilitated diffusion in cell membrane, showing ion channels and carrier proteins.
68
4. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
The process of moving substances against their concentration gradients
Requires Energy.
Examples:
Kidney cells pump glucose and amino acids out of the urine and
back into the blood.
Intestinal cells pump in nutrients from the gut.
Root cells pump in nutrients from the soil.
Gill cells in fish pump out sodium ions.
Fig. 7.m. Active transport: Requires the use of chemical energy to move substances across a
membrane, against a concentration gradient. Active transport proteins may be uniports, symports, or
antiports.
69
Fig. 7.n. In Primary active transport, energy from the hydrolysis of ATP is used to move ions into or
out of cells against their concentration gradients. The sodium-potassium pump is an important
example.
Fig. 7.o. Secondary active transport couples the passive movement of one substance with its
concentration gradient to the movement of another substance against its concentration gradient.
Energy from ATP is used indirectly to establish the concentration gradient that results in the
movement of the first substance.
70
5. BULK TRANSPORT
1. Endocytosis: The cell membrane folds inward, traps and encloses a small
amount of matter from the extracellular fluid.
2. Exocytosis: The reverse of endocytosis: A vesicle from inside the cell moves to
the cell membrane. The vesicle fuses to the membrane and the contents are
secreted.
71
Internal vesicles like Secretory vesicles are
Vesicle
phagosomes are formed formed
Cell Wall
Not involved Involved
Formation
3 Types of Endocytosis:
Fig. 7.q. Secondary active transport couples the passive movement of one substance with its
concentration gradient to the movement of another substance against its concentration gradient.
Energy from ATP is used indirectly to establish the concentration gradient that results in the
movement of the first substance.
72
What’s New
2. Watch and Listen carefully for you to be able to determine and differentiate the
types of transport mechanism in a cell.
What Is It
• Q & A Activity:
3. How will a person know if the transport mechanism in the cell throughout our body
is starting not to work not working?
4. What will you compare to the transport mechanism to what we have today?
5. If you are to choose what transport mechanism you prefer, what will it be and
why?
What’s More
• Crafting Activity:
1. Choose one (1) Transport Mechanism in a cell and make a relatable analogy
based on your experience recently.
73
3. Write your sketch neatly on a long bond paper.
4. Keep your output in a safe place and submit it on the exact date of submission to
be announced by your teacher.
• Q & A Activity:
1. Provide the different Transport Mechanisms in a cell with at least 2-3 attributes.
3. How will a person know if the transport mechanism in the cell throughout our body
is starting not to work not working?
4. What will you compare to the transport mechanism to what we have today?
5. If you are to choose what transport mechanism you prefer, what will it be and
why?
What I Can Do
• Performance Activity:
1. Choose what you think will be the Transport Mechanism you need to create a
story that reflects what our country is experiencing now.
2. Write your draft on a piece of paper and after you‘re done, transfer it in a long
bond paper .
3. Keep your output in a safe place and submit it on the exact date of submission to
be announced by your teacher.
74
Assesment
_1. What is the primary function of carbohydrates attached to the exterior of cell
membranes?
a. identification of the cell
b. flexibility of the membrane
c. strengthening the membrane
d. channels through membrane
_2. Which plasma membrane component can be either found on its surface or
embedded in the membrane structure?
a. protein
b. cholesterol
c. carbohydrate
d. phospholipid
_3. Carbohydrates is found outside the surface of the cell and bounded with?
a. lipid or protein
b. phospholipid
c. glycoprotein
d. glycolipid
_6. What is the primary function of carbohydrates attached to the exterior of cell
membranes?
a. identification of the cell
b. flexibility of the membrane
c. strengthening the membrane
d. channels through membrane
75
_7. The primary function of the plasma membrane is ….
a. to protect the cell from its surroundings.
b. to provide shape and integrity to the cell.
c. to maintains the cell potential.
d. to be a fluid mosaic model.
_8. Vital for cellular signalling processes that influence tissue and organ
formation
a. membrane markers
b. membrane receptors
c. glycoprotein
d. glycolipid
76
_15. Moves molecules from high to low regions of concentration with the
transmembrane protein
a. facilitated
b. active
c. osmosis
d. diffusion
_17. Water inside the cell equals the water outside the cell and equal
amounts of water move in and out of the cell.
a. Osmotic
b. Hypertonic
c. Hypotonic
d. Isotonic
77
Structures and Functions of
Biological Molecules
Lesson - Enzymes
7
What I Need to Know
• Learning Competencies:
• Performance Standards:
• Introduction:
When you were very young and played under the heat of the sun, were
you able to experience sweat dripping in your neck, head and then like
some acid that went in your eyes, it feels burning and stingy right? But don‘t
you worry. Now, we all know that the burning and stingy sensation in our
eyes was due to dust and oils that came in contact with the sweat and to an
anti-microbial enzyme fighting off germs called Lysozyme.
So enzymes are vital for life and serve a wide range of important
functions in the body, such as aiding in fighting germs, digestion, and
metabolism.
78
Some enzymes help break large molecules into smaller pieces that are
more easily absorbed by the body. Other enzymes help bind two molecules
together to produce a new molecule. Enzymes are highly selective
catalysts, meaning that each enzyme only speeds up a specific reaction.
Think of people passing balls back and forth, and the balls are balls of
negativity. So if I'm holding the ball, I'm reduced. If I pass you the ball, you
get reduced, and I become oxidized. The passing of the ball was the
reduction-oxidation reaction.
79
7.1 Transport Mechanisms in Enzymes
What I Know
_6. Enzymes described having a typically long amino acid sequence about?
a. 100-400
b. 100-500
c. 100-600
d. 100-700
7. Catalyst
8. Active Side
9. Enzyme
10. Substrate
80
What’s In
What is an enzyme?
• Enzymes are "specific." Each type of enzyme typically only reacts with one
(Fig 8.b.), or a couple, of substrates. Some enzymes are more specific than
others and will only accept one particular substrate. Other enzymes can act
on a range of molecules, as long as they contain the type of bond or chemical
group that the enzyme targets.
81
• Enzymes are reusable. Enzymes are not reactants and are not used up
during the reaction. Once an enzyme binds to a substrate and catalyzes the
reaction, the enzyme is released, unchanged, and can be used for another
reaction. This means that for each reaction, there does not need to be a 1:1
ratio between enzyme and substrate molecules.
Nomenclature
• Cofactor:
• mostly metal ions or small organic molecules, are inorganic and organic
chemicals that assist enzymes during the catalysis of reactions.
• Nonprotein component (e.g. magnesium, zinc)
• Coenzyme:
• are non-protein organic molecules that are mostly derivatives of vitamins
soluble in water by phosphorylation
• Organic cofactor (Eg: NADH, FADH)
Many enzymes can catalyze a reaction only if coenzymes, or cofactors are present.
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Fig. 8.c. Parts of an Enzyme
Terminology:
Catalyst
• A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being changed
Enzyme
• A biological catalyst (usually a protein)
Substrate
• The reactant molecule that an enzyme works on
Active Site
• The part of the enzyme where the substrate binds
Enzyme-substrate complex
• formed when the substrate molecule collides with the active site of its
enzyme
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Activation energy
• the minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction
Transition state
• the intermediate stage in a reaction in which the old bonds break and
new bonds are formed
What’s New
2. Watch and Listen carefully to the video and be able to recognize the components
of enzyme.
What Is It
• Q & A Activity:
1. What are the components of the enzyme that makes it important or vital?
2. How does the component or part of the enzyme contribute to its function?
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What’s More
2. The video is explaining the mechanism of an enzymatic activity. But with the
image below, relate what you have learned and try to explain what is happening
from #1 - #5.
3. Draw and label with your best answer on a long coupon bond.
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8. Apoenzyme activation occurs upon binding of an organic or inorganic
coenzyme.
9. Enzymes are reactants and are used up during the reaction.
10. Once an enzyme binds to a substrate and catalyzes the reaction, the
enzyme is released, unchanged, and can be used for another reaction.
11. Some enzymes are more specific than others and will only accept one
particular substrate
12. Enzymes have a defined two-dimensional structure.
13. Enzyme‘s amino acid sequence are typically 10-500 amino acids long.
14. Transition state is the intermediate stage in the enzymatic mechanism.
15. Substrate molecule collides with the active site of its enzyme forms the
Enzyme Substrate complex.
What I Can Do
• Performance Activity:
1. Life is hard nowadays; you‘re supposed to be able to know how to cook since
you‘re already a Senior High student. You can ask your guardian or parents to help
you with your dish. Choose a recipe that you can easily cook. Only do this at home if
you‘re permitted to do so.
2. Prepare your ingredients and materials for the activity and document everything
using the camera of your phone or just list them down.
3. Write and determine your ingredients that will represent most likely the component
of an enzyme. Describe the process of your activity like what would be the catalyst in
your ingredients that sped up the reaction to make the finished product or what your
salt would be represent in the components.
4. After you‘re done baking or cooking with the assistance of your parent or guardian
(photos required if possible), reflect on all of the resources that you‘re able to utilize
and appreciate them by serving your dish (output) first to your family and consume
them together taken with a groufie pic.
5. Document everything from preparing to cooking and serving on a long bond and
secure it until the date of submission that will be announced by the teacher.
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7.2 Oxidation/Reduction Reactions
What I Know
1. Oxidation
2. Reduction
3. Oxidants
4. Reductants
5. Reagent
What’s In
Redox reactions are comprised of two parts, a reduced half and an oxidized half,
that always occur together. The reduced half gains electrons and the oxidation
number decreases, while the oxidized half loses electrons and the oxidation number
increases. Simple ways to remember this include the mnemonic devices OIL
RIG, meaning "oxidation is loss" and "reduction is gain," and LEO says
GER, meaning "loss of e- = oxidation" and "gain of e- = reduced." There is no net
change in the number of electrons in a redox reaction. Those given off in the
oxidation half reaction are taken up by another species in the reduction half reaction.
A good example of a redox reaction is the thermite reaction, in which iron atoms
in ferric oxide lose (or give up) O atoms to Al atoms, producing Al2O3.
Fe2O3(s)+2Al(s)→Al2O3(s)+2Fe(l)
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What do you mean by oxidation and reduction?
88
Terminology:
Reactant
• is a substance or compound added to a system to cause a chemical reaction, or
added to test if a reaction occurs. The terms reactant and reagent are often used
interchangeably—however, a reactant….
Reagent
• is more specifically a substance consumed in the course of a chemical reaction.
What’s New
2. Watch and Listen carefully to the video and be able to understand REDOX
reaction.
What Is It
• Q & A Activity:
89
What I Have Learned
90
_8. True to oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction. Except…
a. OXIDATION can be removal of hydrogen/ electropositive element from a
substance.
b. REDUCTION can be removal of oxygen/electronegative element from a
substance.
c. Spontaneous redox reactions are generally endothermic.
d. All redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
What I Know
Place the letters of the best answer inside the box of the factor icon which influences
the activity of the enzyme.
91
What’s In
Enzymes work best within specific temperature and pH ranges, and sub-optimal
conditions can cause an enzyme to lose its ability to bind to a substrate.
92
Enzymes catalyze a reaction most rapidly at an optimum pH, near neutral.
93
The higher the concentration of an enzyme the greater should be the initial
reaction rate. This will last as long as substrate present
94
o Noncompetitive inhibitors: attach to the enzyme at an allosteric
site, which is a site other than the active site distort the tertiary protein
structure and alter the shape of the active site.
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o Feedback inhibition: regulates the rate of many metabolic pathways
when an end product of a pathway accumulates and binds to and
inactivates the first enzyme in the metabolic pathway. Product (usually
ultimate product) of a pathway controls the rate of synthesis through
inhibition of an early step (usually the first step). Conserves material
and energy by preventing accumulation of intermediates.
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What’s New
1. 2 video links are provided ; “ GCSE Biology - How Enzymes W ork #11‖ and
―GCSE Biology - Factors that Affect Enzymes #12‖ by Cognito (2018),
Part 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNX9UQ08fZ4
Part 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qq1foXnvJao
2. Watch and Listen carefully to the video and be able to recognize and relate to
each factors affecting the enzymatic activities.
What Is It
• Q & A Activity:
2. How can you determine the effects of each factor of the enzymatic activity?
3. Select 1 factor that most likely reflects your life as a Senior High student.
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Enzyme activity can be affected by a variety of factors, such as 5. ,
6. , 7. , 8. __ , and 9. .
10. Evidently the graph on a substrate concentration will present a __ .
What I Can Do
• Performance Activity:
Grow a plant.
A plant can represent an enzyme while your water, soil and sunlight can represent
the substrates. Guess what the inhibitors can represent? Maybe anything that will
negatively affect the plant like not watering it on schedule, not getting enough
sunlight and so much more. We know the byproducts of the plants that are well
taken care of, right? Food and oxygen, or something beneficial to us.
1. Gather a recyclable container like cola bottles, loam soil, fertilizer, etc. Use tools
needed like a small shovel or trowel for transferring the soil inside the container.
3. Decide on a plant you want to easily take care and be beneficial for your
household. Then, secure the seeds or graft of the plant you decided on. Plant it.
4. Document everything for a month (photos included if possible), starting from the
first day of listing down the materials and recording the plant‘s growth in centimeters.
Keep a record notebook for the schedule of submission.
..
Assesment
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_3. Lysis of substrate; produce contains double bond.
a. Transferases
b. Hydrolases
c. Lyases
d. Isomerases
_7. Enzymes described having a typically long amino acid sequence about?
a. 100-400
b. 100-500
c. 100-600
d. 100-700
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_10. All the statements are not true to the substrate concentration, except for...
a. This factor at an optimum level, near neutral, causes enzymes to catalyze a
reaction most rapidly.
b. Changing this factor outside the enzyme‘s optimum range will slow enzyme
activity.
c. At the saturation point, the reaction will not speed up, no matter how much of
this factor is added.
d. Increasing this factor can cause an enzyme to lose its shape (denature) and
stop working.
100
_17. Can bind to an enzyme‘s active site and compete with substrate.
a. Feedback inhibition
b. Noncompetitive inhibitors.
c. Competitive inhibitor
d. Substrate Concentration
101
102
References
103
• Active transport, kaiserscience.wordpress.com,
https://kaiserscience.wordpress.com/biology-the-living-
environment/cells/active-transport-across-cell-membranes/
• Endocytosis, Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (2007)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocytosis
• Difference Between Endocytosis and Exocytosis, Lakna ( 2017)
https://pediaa.com/difference-between-endocytosis-and-exocytosis/
• Active, Passive, and Bulk Cell Transport, RicochetScience (2016)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BGeSDI03aaw
• Alzheimer's disease By Mayo Clinic Staff (2018)
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/leukemia/symptoms-
causes/syc-
20374373#:~:text=Leukemia%20is%20cancer%20of%20the,involves%
20the%20white%20blood%20cells
• Leukemia By Mayo Clinic Staff (2018)
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/leukemia/symptoms-
causes/syc-
20374373#:~:text=Leukemia%20is%20cancer%20of%20the,involves%
20the%20white%20blood%20cells
• Errors in cell division by The law of science (2013)
https://www.slideshare.net/thelawofscience/errors-in-cell-division
• Membrane transport by wikipedia.org
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_transport
Structural components of Cell Membrane by A-LevelBiology (2020)
https://alevelbiology.co.uk/notes/plasma-membrane-structure-and-
functions/
• https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-cells/hs-
the-cell-membrane/a/structure-of-the-plasma-membrane
• Fluid mosaic model of cell membranes, Khan Academy (2015)
https://youtu.be/cP8iQu57dQo
• Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-
SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-
biology/chapter/components-and-structure/
• Active transport https://kaiserscience.wordpress.com/biology-the-living-
environment/cells/active-transport-across-cell-membranes/
• Mariana Ruiz Villarreal 27 July 2007
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocytosis
• Difference Between Endocytosis and Exocytosis 2017 by Lakna
https://pediaa.com/difference-between-endocytosis-and-exocytosis/
• GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 SPECIALIZED SUBJECT | ACADEMIC –
STEM by The Commission on Higher Education and Philippine Normal
University (2016) pp 78-85;
104
• Enzymes review 2020 Khan Academy
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-energy-
and-transport/hs-enzymes/a/hs-enzymes-review
• Enzyme structure and function by wikiversity.org (2020)
https://bit.ly/2CgCMCB
• https://www.livescience.com/45145-how-do-enzymes-work.html
• https://www.britannica.com/science/enzyme
• Chapter 5 Microbial Metabolism, Melinda Grant (2018)
https://slideplayer.com/slide/12502012/
• Structural Biochemistry/Enzyme/Cofactors by en.wikibooks.org (2019)
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Structural_Biochemistry/Enzyme/Cofactors
• Oxidation-Reduction Reactions, Christopher Spohrer (UCD), Christina
Breitenbuecher (UCD), Luvleen Brar (UCD) (2020)
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Suppleme
ntal_Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Redox_Chemistr
y/Oxidation-Reduction_Reactions
• Chapter 8 redox reactions ppt for class 11 CBSE, ritik (2015)
https://www.slideshare.net/deepikajonnes/chapter-8-redox-reactions-
ppt-for-class-11-cbse
• Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity, Charles C. Worthington, Von
Worthington, Andrew Worthington, Ph.D. (2019) http://www.worthington-
biochem.com/introbiochem/factors.html#:~:text=Several%20factors%20
affect%20the%20rate,of%20any%20inhibitors%20or%20activators.
• https://www.britannica.com/science/enzyme/Factors-affecting-enzyme-
activity
• Factors affecting enzyme activity
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-energy-
and-transport/hs-enzymes/a/hs-enzymes-review
• Factors-Affecting-Enzymatic-Activity-Notes-PDF by
easybiologyclass.com https://bit.ly/2W3SFU9
• Factors affecting enzyme activity by www.khanacademy.org
https://bit.ly/3iL9XPr
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