MODULE 13

COURSE INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Explain the evolving concept of life based on emerging pieces of evidence and how they are
interlinked with one another.

Week 15: The Process of Evolution

Evidence of Evolution

What Is Evolution?
Biological evolution is genetic change in a population from one
generation to another. The speed and direction of change is
variable with different species lines and at different times.
Continuous evolution over many generations can result in the
development of new varieties and species. Likewise, failure to
evolve in response to environmental changes can, and often does, lead
to extinction. The result of the massive amount of evidence for
biological evolution accumulated over the last two centuries can
safely conclude that evolution has occurred and continues to
occur. All life forms, including humans, evolved from earlier
species, and all still living species of organisms continue to evolve
today.

Evidence of Evolution
The evidence for evolution has primarily come from sources like fossil record of change in
earlier species, homologies, DNA and protein, the chemical and anatomical similarities or related life
forms, the geographic dis-tribution of related species, and the recorded genetic changes in living
organisms over many generations.

Fossil Record
Remains of animals and plants founding sedimentary rock deposits give us an indisputable
record of past changes through vast periods of time. This evidence attests to the fact that there has
been a tremendous variety of living things. Some extinct species had traits that were transitional
between major groups of organisms.

Their existence confirms that species are not fixed but can evolve. Geological strata
containing into other species over time. The an evolutionary sequence of evidence also shows fossils
that what have appeared to be gaps in the fossil record are due to incomplete data collection.

The more that we learn about the evolution of specific species lines, the more that these so-
called gaps or "missing links in the chain of evolution" are filled with transitional fossil specimens.
One of the first of these gaps to be filled was between small bipedal dinosaurs and birds. Just two
years after Darwin published On the Origin of Species, a 150-145 mil-lion year old fossil of
Archaeopteryx was found in southern Germany. It had jaws with teeth and a long bony tail like
dinosaurs, broad wings and feathers like birds, and skeletal features of both. This discovery verified
the assumption that birds had reptilian ancestor.

Archaeopteryx fossil Archaeopteryx recreation Archaeopteryx tail feathers

Since the discovery of Archaeopteryx, there have been many other crucial evolutionary gaps
filled in the fossil record. Perhaps, the most important one, from our human perspective, was that
between apes and our own species. Since the 1920's, there have been literally hundreds of well-
dated intermediate fossils found in Africa that were transitional species leading from apes to humans
over the last 6-7 million years.

The fossil record also provides abundant evidence that the complex animals and plants of
today were preceded by earlier simple ones. In addition, it shows that multicelled organisms evolved
only after the first single-celled ones. This fits the predictions of evolutionary theory.

Homology
Evolutionary theory predicts that related organisms will share similarities that are derived
from common ancestors. Similar characteristics due to relatedness are known as homologies.
Homologies can be revealed by comparing the anatomies of different living things, looking at cellular
similarities and differences, studying embryological deve-lopment, and studying vestigial structures
within individual organisms.

If evolution has occurred, there should be many anatomical similarities among varieties and
species that have diverged from a common ancestor. Those species with the most recent common
ancestor should share the most traits. For instance, the many anatomical similarities of wolves, dogs,
and other members of the genus Canis are due to the fact that they are descended from the same
ancient canine species and still share 99.8% of their genes. Wolves and dogs also share similarities
with foxes, indicating a slightly more distant ancestor with them.

In the following photos of plants, the leaves are quite different from the "normal" leaves we
envision.
 Each leaf has a very different shape and function, yet all are homologous structures, derived
from a common ancestral form. The pitcher plant and Venus' flytrap use leaves to trap and digest
insects. The bright red leaves of the poinsettia look like flower petals. The cactus leaves are modified
into small spines which reduce water loss and can protect the cactus from herbivory.

Genetics
One of the strongest evidences for common descent comes from the study of gene sequences.
Comparative sequence analysis examines the relationship between the DNA sequences of different
species, producing several lines of evidence that confirm Darwin's original hypothesis of common
descent.

If the hypothesis of common descent is true, then species that share a common ancestor
inherited that ancestor's DNA sequence, as well as mutations unique to that ancestor. More closely
related species have a greater fraction of identical sequence and shared substitutions compared to
more distantly related species.

The simplest and most powerful evidence is provided by phylogenetic reconstruction. Such
reconstructions, especially when done using slowly evolving protein sequences, are often quite
robust and can be used to reconstruct a great deal of the evolutionary history of modern organisms
(and even in some instances of the evolutionary history of extinct organisms, such as the recovered
gene sequences of mammoths or Neanderthals).

DNA sequencing
Comparison of the DNA sequences allows organisms to be grouped by sequence similarity,
and the resulting phylogenetic trees are typically congruent with traditional taxonomy, and are often
used to strengthen or correct taxonomic classifications. Sequence comparison is considered a mea-
sure robust enough to correct erroneous assumptions in the phylogenetic tree in instances where
other evidence is scarce.

For example, neutral human DNA sequences are approximately 1.2% divergent (based on
substitutions) from those of their nearest genetic relative, the chimpanzee, 1.6% from gorillas, and
6.6% from baboons. Genetic sequence evidence thus allows inference and quantification of gene-tic
relatedness between humans and other apes.

The sequence of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene, a vital gene encoding a part of the ribosome,
was used to find the broad phylogenetic relationships between all extant life. The analysis , originally
done by Carl Woese, resulted in the three-domain system, arguing for two major splits in the early
evolution of life. The first split led to modern Bacteria and the subsequent split led to modern Archaea
and Eukaryotes.

Some DNA sequences are shared by very different organisms. It has been predicted by the
theory of evolution that the differences in such DNA sequences between two organisms should
roughly resemble both the biological difference between them according to their anatomy and the
time that had passed since these two organisms have separated in the course of evolution, as seen in
fossil evidence.

The rate of accumulating such changes should be low for some sequences, namely those that
code for critical RNA or proteins, and high for others that code for less critical RNA or proteins; but
for every specific sequence, the rate of change should be roughly constant over time. These results
have been experimentally confirmed. Two examples are DNA sequences coding for rRNA, which is
highly conserved, and DNA sequences coding for fibrino peptides (amino acid chains that are
discarded during the formation of fibrin), which are highly non-conserved.

Proteins
The proteomic evidence also supports the universal ancestry of life. Vital proteins, such as
the ribosome, DNA polymerase, and RNA polymerase, are found in everything from the most
primitive bacteria to the most complex mammals. The core part of the protein is conserved across all
lineages of life, serving similar functions.

Higher organisms have evolved additional protein subunits, largely affecting the regulation
and protein-protein interaction of the core. Other overarching similarities between all lineages of
extant organisms, such as DNA, RNA, amino acids, and the lipid bilayer, give support to the theory of
common descent. Phylogenetic analyses of protein sequences from various organisms produce
similar trees of relationship between all organisms.

Chemical and Anatomical Similarities

Living things on earth are fundamentally similar in the way that their basic anatomical
structures develop and in their chemical compositions. No matter whether they are simple single-
celled protozoa or highly complex organisms with billions of cells, they all begin as single cells that
reproduce themselves by similar division processes. After a limited life span, they also all grow old
and die.
All living things on earth share the ability to create complex molecules out of carbon and a
few other elements. In fact, 99% of the proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and other molecules of living
things are made from only 6 of the 92 most common elements. This is not a mere coincidence. All
plants and animals receive their specific characteristics from their parents by inheriting particular
combinations of genes. Molecular biologists have discovered that genes are, in fact, segments of DNA
molecules in our cells.

(section of a DNA molecule) (simple protein molecule)

These segments of DNA contain chemically coded recipes for creating proteins by linking together
particular amino acids in specific sequences.
 All of the tens of thousands of types of proteins in living things are mostly made of only 20
kinds of amino acids. Despite the great diversity of life on our planet, the simple language of the DNA
code is the same for all living things. This is evidence of the fundamental molecular unity of life.
In addition to molecular similarities, most living things are alike in
that they either get the energy needed for growth, repair, and reproduction
directly from sunlight, by photosynthesis or they get it indirectly by
consuming green plants and other organisms that eat plants. Many groups of
species share the same types of body structures because they inherited
them from a common ancestor that had them. This is the case with the
vertebrates, which are the animals that have internal skeletons. The arms of
humans, the forelegs of dogs and cats, the wings of birds, and the flippers of
whales and seals all have the same types of bones (humerus, radius, and
ulna) be-cause they have retained these traits of their shared common
ancient vertebrate ancestor.

All of these major chemical and anatomical similarities between living things can be most
logically ac- counted for by assuming that they either share a common ancestry or they came into
existence as a result of similar natural processes. These facts make it difficult to accept a theory of
special and independent creation of different species.

Geographic Distribution of Related Species

Another clue to patterns of past evolution is found in the natural geographic distribution of
related species. It is clear that major isolated land areas and island groups often evolved their own
distinct plant and animal communities. For instance, before humans arrived 60-40,000 years ago,
Australia had more than 100 species of kangaroos, koalas, and other marsupials but none of the more
advanced terrestrial placental mammals such as dogs, cats, bears, horses.

Land mammals were entirely absent from the even more isolated islands that make up
Hawaii and New Zealand. Each of these places had a great number of plant, insect, and bird species
that were found nowhere else in the world. The most likely explanation for the existence of
Australia's, New Zealand's, and Hawaii's mostly unique biotic environments is that the life forms in
these areas have been evolving in isolation from the rest of the world for millions of years.

Genetic Changes Over Generations

The earth's environments are constantly changing, usually in subtle and complex
ways. When the changes are so great as to go beyond what most members of a population of
organisms can tolerate, widespread death occurs. As Charles Darwin observed, however, not all
individuals always perish. Fortunately, natural populations have genetic diversity. Those
individuals whose characteristics allow them to survive an environmental crisis likely will be the
only ones able to reproduce. Subsequently, their traits will be more common in the next generation-
-evolution of the population will have occurred.

This process of natural selection resulting in evolution can be easily demonstrated over a 24
hour period in a laboratory Petri dish of bacteria living in a nutrient medium. When a lethal dose of
antibiotic is added, there will be a mass die-off. However, a few of the bacteria usually are immune
and survive. The next generation is mostly immune because they have inherited immunity from the
survivors. That is the case with the purple bacteria in the Petri dishes shown below--the bacteria
population has evolved.

This same phenomenon of bacteria evolution speeded up by human actions occurs in

our own bodies at times when an antibiotic drug is
unable to completely eliminate a bacterial
infection. That is the reason that medical doctors are
sometimes hesitant to recommend an antibiotic for
their patients and insist that the full dosage be used
even if the symptoms of ill-ness go away. They do not
want to allow any potentially antibiotic resistant
bacteria to survive.

Species that mature and reproduce large numbers in a short amount of time have a potential for very
fast evolutionary changes. Insects and microorganisms. Often evolve at such rapid rates that our
actions to combat them quickly lose their effectiveness. We must constantly develop new
pesticides, antibiotics, and other measures in an ever escalating bio-logical arms race with these
creatures.

Evidence from selection

Examples for the evidence for evolution often stem from direct observation of natural
selection in the field and the laboratory. This section is unique in that it provides a narrower
context concerning the process of selection. All of the examples provided prior to this have described
the evidence that evolution has occurred, but has not provided the major underlying mechanism:
natural selection.

Scientists have observed and documented a multitude of events where natural selection is in
action. The most well known examples are antibiotic resistance in the medical field along with better-
known laboratory experiments documenting evolution's occurrence. Natural selection is tantamount
to common descent in that long-term occurrence and selection pressures can lead to the diversity of
life on earth as found today. All adaptations—documented and undocumented changes concerned—
are caused by natural selection (and a few other minor processes). It is well established that,
"...natural selection is a ubiquitous part of speciation...", therefore; henceforth, examples of natural
selection and speciation will often interdepend or correspond with one another. The examples below
are only a small fraction of the actual experiments and observations.

Artificial selection and experimental evolution

Artificial selection
Artificial selection demonstrates the diversity that can exist among organisms that share a
relatively recent common ancestor. In artificial selection, one species is bred selectively at each
generation, allowing only those organisms that exhibit desired characteristics to repro-duce. These
characteristics become increasingly well deve-loped in successive generations. Artificial selection
was successful long before science discovered the genetic basis. Examples of artificial selection
include dog breed-ing, genetically modified food, flower breeding, and the cultivation of foods such
as wild cabbage and others.
Experimental evolution
Experimental evolution uses controlled experiments to test hypotheses and theories of
evolution. In one early example, William Dallinger set up an experiment shortly before 1880,
subjecting microbes to heat with the aim of forcing adaptive changes. His experiment ran for around
seven years, and his published results were acclaimed, but he did not resume the experiment after
the apparatus failed.

Evolution Of Man

The modern theory concerning the evolution of man proposes that humans and apes
derive from an apelike ancestor that lived on earth a few million years ago. The theory states that
man, through a combination of environmental and genetic factors, emerged as species to produce
the variety of ethnicities seen today, while modern apes evolved on a separate evolutionary pathway.
Perhaps the most famous proponent of evolutionary theory is Charles Darwin (1809-82) who
authored The Origin of Species (1859) to describe his theory of evolution. It was based largely on
observations which he made during his 5-year voyage
around the world aboard the HMS Beagle (1831-36).
Since then, mankind's origin has generally been
explained from an evolutionary perspective. Moreover,
the theory of man's evolution has been and continues to
be modified as new findings are discovered, revisions to
the theory are adopted, and earlier concepts proven
incorrect are discarded.

The Chihuahua mix and Great Dane

Illustrate the range of sizes among dog breeds

The Origin and Extinction of Species

Theories on the origin of life

Several attempts have been made from time to time to explain the origin of life on earth. As a
result, there are several theories which offer their own explanation on the possible mechanism of
origin of life. Following are some of them:

Theory of Special Creation

According to this theory, all the different forms of life that occur
today on planet earth, have been created by God, the almighty. This idea
is found in the ancient scriptures of almost every religion. According to
Hindu mythology, Lord Brahma, the God of Creation, created the living
world in accordance to his wish.
According to the Christian belief, God created this universe, plants,
animals and human beings in about six natural days. The Sikh mythology says that all forms of life
including human beings came into being with a single word of God. Special creation theory believes
that the things have not undergone any significant change since their creation. The theory of Special
Creation was purely a religious concept, acceptable only on the basis of faith. It has no scientific basis.

Theory of Spontaneous Generation ( Abiogenesis )

This theory assumed that living organisms could arise
suddenly and spontaneously from any kind of non-living matter.
One of the firm believers in spontaneous generation was
Aristotle, the Greek philosopher (384-322 BC).He believed that
dead leaves falling from a tree into a pond would transform into
fishes and those falling on soil would transform into worms and
insects.

He also held that some insects develop from morning dew and rotting manure. Egyptians believed
that mud of the Nile river could spontaneously give rise to many forms of life. The idea of spontaneous
generation was popular almost till seventeenth century. Many scientists like Descartes, Galileo and
Helmont supported this idea.

The theory of Spontaneous Generation was disproved in the course of time due to the
experiment conducted by Fransisco Redi, (1665), Spallanzani (1765) and later by Louis Pasteur
(1864) in his famous Swan neck experiment. This theory was disapproved, as scientists gave definite
proof that life comes from pre-existing life.

Theory of Catastrophism
It is simply a modification of the theory of Special Creation. It states
that there have been several creations of life by God, each preceded by a
catastrophe resulting from some kind of geological disturbance. According
to this theory, since each catastrophe completely destroyed the existing
life, each new creation consisted of life form different from that of previous
ones. A French scientist Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) and Orbigney (1802
to 1837) were the main supporters of this theory.

Cosmozoic Theory (Theory of Panspermia)

According to this theory, life has reached this planet Earth from
other heavenly bodies such as meteorites, in the form of highly resistance
spores of some organisms. This idea was proposed by Richter in 1865 and
supported by Arrhenius (1908) and other contemporary scientists. The
theory did not gain any support. This theory lacks evidence, hence it was
discarded.

Theory of Chemical Evolution

This theory is also known as Materialistic Theory or
Physicochemical Theory. According this theory, Origin of life on earth is
the result of a slow and gradual process of chemical evolution that
probably occurred about 3.8 billion years ago. This theory was proposed
independently by two scientists - A.I.Oparin, a Russian scientist in 1923
and J.B.S Haldane, an English scientist, in 1928. According to this theory;

- Spontaneous generation of life, under the present environmental conditions is not possible.
- Earth's surface and atmosphere during the first billion years of existence, were radically different
from that of today's conditions.
- The primitive earth's atmosphere was a reducing type of atmosphere and not
oxidizing type.
- The first life arose from a collection of chemical substances through a progressive
series of chemical reactions.
- Solar radiation, heat radiated by earth and lighting must have been the chief energy
source for these chemical reactions.

Organic Evolution
Speciation stretches back over3.5 billion years during which life has existed on earth. It is
thought to occur in multiple ways such as slowly, steadily and gradually overtime or rapidly from one
long static state to another. Evolution (also known as biological or organic evolution) is the change
over time in one or more inherited traits found in populations of organisms.

Inherited traits are particular distinguishing characteristics, including anatomical, biochemical or

behavioral characteristics, which are passed on from one generation to the next. Evolution has led to
the diversification of all living organisms, which are described by Charles Darwin as “endless forms
most beautiful and most wonderful”.

Principles of Evolution
I. The Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics (by Jean Lamarck: 1809 )
Modifications acquired during one’s lifetime are inherited by the next generation, ex. giraffes
acquired a long neck slowly over time as each generation of giraffe stretched its neck slightly longer
in trying to reach leaves high in trees. At first glance this theory is deceptively close to Darwin’s
theory (both include the concept that evolution produces life forms adapted to their environments)
but the inheritance of acquired characteristics implies that the organism itself in response to
environmental pressures can control the direction of change. Unfortunately, there have been no
discoveries of any such mechanism of change.

II. The Theory of Evolution by means of Natural Selection

Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace proposed the Theory of Natural Selection
independently which is strikingly similar. Darwin worked hard for decades to gather data to support
this theory, thus, most of the credits have been given to him. Darwin's theory of evolution is based on
key facts and the inferences drawn from them. Darwin’s process of natural selection has four
components.
1. Variation. Organisms (within populations) exhibit individual variation in appearance and
behavior. These variations may involve body size, hair color, facial markings, voice
properties, or number of offspring. On the other hand, some traits show little to no variation
among individuals—for example, number of eyes in vertebrates.
2. Inheritance. Some traits are consistently passed on from parent to offspring. Such traits are
heritable, whereas other traits are strongly influenced by environmental conditions and
show weak heritability.
3. High rate of population growth. Most populations have more offspring each year than local
resources can support leading to a struggle for resources. Each generation experiences
substantial mortality.
4. Differential survival and reproduction. Individuals possessing traits well suited for the
struggle for local resources will contribute more offspring to the next generation.
Beak variations in finches Darwin Evolution of the horse family
Observed in the Galapagos Island

From one generation to the next, the struggle for resources (what Darwin called the “struggle
for existence”) will favor individuals with some variations over others and thereby change the
frequency of traits within the population. This process is natural selection. The traits that confer an
advantage to those individuals who leave more offspring are called adaptations.

In order for natural selection to operate on a trait, the trait must possess heritable variation
and must confer an advantage in the competition for resources. If one of these requirements does
not occur, then the trait does not experience natural selection. (We now know that such traits may
change by other evolutionary mechanisms that have been discovered since Darwin’s time.)

What is Extinction?
Extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms (taxon), normally a species.
The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species,
although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point. Because a species'
potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done
retrospectively.

This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct
abruptly "reappears" (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence. Many factors
are driving an unprecedented rate of extinction of plant and animal species worldwide. Although
extinction is a natural process, the rate at which current extinction is taking place is clearly not, and
all scientific evidence indicates that the activities of man- kind are the primary engine behind most
recent and present extinction events

Major causes of extinction

Habitat Loss
Destructive change to environments or landscapes, either through natural phenomena (such
as floods, volcanoes, hurricanes etc.), or human processes (such as construction, deforestation,
changing land use for agriculture, artificial land drainage etc.), is the single greatest threat to the
biodiversity of Planet Earth, and the greatest cause of extinction in our world. When a plant or an
animal does not have a habitat, and cannot adapt to a different environment, it will become extinct.
Unregulated or Illegal Killing, Hunting or Poaching
Hunting and poaching rare plants and animals is a human cause of extinction that may
represent a major, or dominant factor in the decline of certain species, particularly those that are
endemic to a small geographic area, or have a small or slow-regenerating population overall.
Unfortunately, across the world, various socio-economic factors drive hunting and poaching
of endangered plant and animal species, and where this occurs at unregulated, unsustainable levels,
vulnerable species may be pushed towards extinction.

Although regulations and legislation may exist at a national or international level, often
sufficient infrastructure, awareness or resources are in place for any effective impact. Sometimes
killing of endangered plants and animals is due to ignorance or misconceived stereotypes, as is often
the case of bats, snakes and arachnids that are commonly, but incorrectly perceived to be aggressive
or necessarily dangerous.

Introduced Species
The introduction of plant and animal species that are not endemic to a given locality is both
a natural and human process that often has disastrous knock-on consequences for local biota, often
including extinction of native taxa. Introduction of species that are not native to a given area may
occur through regular dispersal processes over short geographic distances.

Pollution
Pollution may be a natural or human cause of extinction, and can take many forms. Natural
pollution events may result from cataclysmic geographic processes (volcanic eruptions, floods,
earthquakes, etc.), or from over-population of ecosystems by specific species (red tide) or other
processes. Natural pollution events commonly cause local extinction events, but rarely are
sufficiently wide scale to cause complete extinction of significant numbers of plant and animal taxa.

Human pollution can take many forms, but usually arises when toxic substances are dumped,
either advertently or inadvertently, into biologically diverse areas of our planet. Anthropogenic
pollution may have knock-on consequences, for example, eutrophication. Large scale anthropogenic
pollution events (i.e. oil spills) may have the scope to cause the complete extinction of plant and
animal taxa, particularly those that are endemic to a small geographic area, or have a small or slow-
regenerating population overall.

Pollution may impact entire ecosystems, including humans. For example, the pesticide DDT,
which was used against arthropods up until the 1970s, but causes catastrophic impacts at all
ecological levels, from the water and soil, through water feeders, ground arthropods, predators, and
humans.

Competition
On going evolutionary processes are driven by competition, and over (usually) long periods
of time, plant and animal taxa that are unable to adapt may be out competed and naturally displaced
from their habitat, and pushed towards extinction.

Disease
The spread of disease may be both a natural and human factor behind extinction. Naturally
occurring diseases that afflict specific plant or animal taxa may be inadvertently spread by humans
with disastrous consequences, for example, Dutch elm disease, which is a fungal disease of elm trees
spread by the elm bark beetle.
 Although believed to be originally native to Asia, the disease has been accidentally
introduced into North America and Europe, where it has devastated native populations of elms which
had not had the opportunity to evolve resistance.

Effects of ancient humans

Human beings have been affecting the environment for a very long time. Early humans
burned woodland to clear it and make way for grassland. They also made spears and used them to
hunt more efficiently. Some scientists believe that some recent mass extinctions took place because
of the actions of ancient humans.

One example is the extinction of Australian megafauna, or very large animals, that took place
approximately 40 000 years ago . This mass extinction coincided almost exactly with the arrival of
the Australian Indigenous peoples, who would have found the slow-moving megafauna easy prey.
Another example is the mass extinction that occurred between 10 000 and 25 000 years ago in North
America. Here, too, a large portion of the native mega- fauna was wiped out around the same time
that human beings appeared.
Climate Change
The biodiverse Earth can't keep up with the rapid changes in temperature and climate. The
species are not used to severe weather conditions and long seasons, or a changing chemical make-up
of their surroundings. As more species die, it is only making it more difficult for the survivors to find
food. The warmer climates we are used to present-day are perfect for diseases and epidemics to
thrive.

Present day destruction

Today, animals are disappearing from the world at an alarming rate. That rate is continuing
to grow. Some scientists believe that by 2050, extinction rates will be between 1000 and 10 000 times
above the background rate of extinction (the rate of extinction due to evolution).

This is happening because the human population is expanding very quickly. As more humans
are born, the population needs more food. This means that more land is cleared for farming. More
resources are also needed for manufacturing and building homes, so more lumber and minerals are
taken from the Earth.

Introduced species, if left unchecked, continue to damage ecosystems. Pollution from more
and more factories, cars and power plants also harm ecosystems. There are many government
protections in place to prevent over-hunting, but many of these are not always followed. Unless
drastic changes are made, more species will become extinct due to human intervention.

Changes in Sea Levels or Currents

The changes in sea levels and currents is a result, in part, of the melting freshwater. The
denser, saltier water sinks and forms the currents that marine life depends on. Ocean floor spreading
and rising also affects sea level. A small rise in the ocean floor can displace a lot of water onto land
that is all ready occupied. The gases from the volcanic activity can also be absorbed by the water, thus
changing the chemical composition, making it unsuitable for some life.
Spread of Invasive Species
Invasive species invade foreign territory. They use resources that the other species depend
on. Once competition gets too great, the survival of the fittest plan will begin, and one of the species,
usually the natural one, will die off.

Cosmic Radiation
Cosmic Radiation is radiation being emitted from outer space and the Sun. It is hypothesized
that being exposed to too much cosmic radiation can mutate genes, which can potentially weaken a
species' gene pool in the future. Since the radiation comes from space and the Sun, it is extremely
difficult to avoid the radiation.

Present day destruction

Today, animals are disappearing from the world at an alarming rate. That rate is continuing
to grow. Some scientists believe that by 2050, extinction rates will be between 1000 and 10 000 times
above the background rate of extinction (the rate of extinction due to evolution). This is happening
because the human population is expanding very quickly. As more humans are born, the population
needs more food. This means that more land is cleared for farming.
Tracing evolutionary relationships
In order to find out the evolutionary relationships among organisms, we have to look for their
common features. Different organisms would have common features if they are inherited from a
common ancestor.