EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION

Pieces of Evidence

– FOSSIL RECORDS
– BIOGEOGRAPHY
– DNA/PROTEIN SEQUENCES
– HOMOLOGY
– EMBRYOLOGY
FOSSIL RECORDS

– FOSSILS are the remains of living things that

were mineralized/hardened over million of
years and commonly found in layers of
sedimentary rocks
– Fossil record-fossils and the order in which
fossils appear, provides evidence of when
organisms live on Earth, how species evolved,
how some species have one extinct and also
shows how environmental conditions on Earth
may have changed over time.
COMPARATIVE
ANATOMY
(HOMOLOGOUS BODY
STRUCTURES)

– are structures that are similar in related

organisms because they were inherited
from a common ancestor. These
structures may or may not have the
same function in the descendants.
– Example:
The arm of the man, lateral fin of the
whale, the wing of the bat and the leg of
the dog are similar structures although
the functions may vary.
ANALOGOUS
STRUCTURE
– are structures that are similar in
unrelated organisms. The structures are
similar because they evolved to do the
same job, not because they were inherited
from a common ancestor.
For example, the wings of bats and birds,
look similar on the outside. They also have
the same function. However, wings
evolved independently in the two groups
of animals. This is apparent when you
compare the pattern of bones inside the
wings.
VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES
 Are proof that physical structures
evolve
 Structures that have no purpose or
have no functions
 Probably share a common ancestor
with organism in which the
homologous structure is functional
Example:
The vestigial tailbone in humans is
homologous to the functional tail of
other primates.
Closely related organisms go
through similar stages in
embryonic development
Example:
All vertebrate embryo go through
a stage wherein they have all gill
pouches at the sides of their
throat. Later, the gills develop
into different structures. In fishes,
it develops as gills, whereas in
mammals, it will develop into the
Eustachian tube of the ears.
 MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Like structural homologies, similarities between
biological molecules can reflect shared
evolutionary ancestry.
At the most basic level, all living organisms share:
•The same genetic material (DNA)
•The same, or highly similar, genetic codes
•The same basic process of gene expression
(transcription and translation)
 MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

These shared features suggest that all living things are

descended from a common ancestor, and that this ancestor
had DNA as its genetic material, used the genetic code, and
expressed its genes by transcription and translation.
 Present-day organisms all share these features because
they were "inherited" from the ancestor (and because any
big changes in this basic machinery would have broken
the basic functionality of cells).
 Comparing DNA
Similar DNA sequences are
the strongest evidence for
evolution from a common
ancestor. More similarities in
the DNA sequence is
evidence for a closer
evolutionary relationship.
 Biogeography
is the study of how and
why plants
and animals live where
they do. It provides more
evidence for evolution.
Camel Migrations and Present-
Day Variation.
Members of the camel family
now live in different parts of the
world. They differ from one
another in a number of traits.
However, they share basic
similarities. This is because they
all evolved from a common
ancestor.
All of the finches probably
descended from one bird that
arrived on the islands from South
America.
 The first bird was a seed eater. It
evolved into many finch species.
Each species was adapted for a
different type of food.
 This is an example of adaptive
radiation. This is the process by
which a single species evolves
into many new species to fill
available niches.
 Summary
Biologists use multiple types of evidence to trace evolutionary changes
that occur over long time periods.
For example:
•Homologous physical features shared between species can provide
evidence for common ancestry (but we have to be sure they are really
homologous, and not the result of convergent evolution).
•Similarities and differences among biological molecules (e.g., in the DNA
sequence of genes) can be used to determine species' relatedness.
•Biogeographical patterns provide clues about how species, both alive
and extinct, are related to each other.
•The fossil record, though incomplete, provides valuable information
about what species existed at particular times in Earth’s history.
 Eyewitness to Evolution
In the 1970s, biologists Peter and Rosemary Grant went to the Galápagos
Islands.
spent more than 30 years on the project.
 While the Grants were on the Galápagos, a drought occurred. As a result,
fewer seeds were available for finches to eat. Birds with smaller beaks
could crack open and eat only the smaller seeds. Birds with bigger beaks
could crack and eat seeds of all sizes. As a result, many of the small-
beaked birds died in the drought. Birds with bigger beaks survived and
reproduced. Within 2 years, the average beak size in the
finch population increased. Evolution by natural selection had occurred.
END. THANK you!
COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY

– Closely related species will show more

similarities in the amino acid sequences of
their protein.
– Amino acid sequence in a protein reflects
the nucleotide sequence of the gene coding
for the protein
– Example:
– The sequence of amino acids in the protein
cytochrome C. The human cytochrome C is
identical to chimpanzee cytochrome C in all
104 amino acids. This indicates a high
degree of similarity between human and
chimpanzees.
 GEOGRAPHICAL EVIDENCE
Dinosaur fossils have been found in Antartica
Antartica must have had a warm climate to support
large reptiles.
The movement of plates explained why several species
are found in continents separated by oceans and how
species were separated
Geological environment caused changes in biological
environment.
The Rate of Evolution

Gradualism
– Evolution through slow change and
gradual rate over several generations.
– Believed to be true by Darwin and many
other scientists
– Fossil evidence
Punctuated Equilibrium

– Species remain unchanged for thousands

of years, then suddenly undergo rapid
changes
– Example: fossil evidence of trilobites –
unchanged for millions of years, then
suddenly died off
Mechanisms for Evolution
Convergent Evolution is the
process where members of two
varying species involve similar
characteristics due to similar
environments. This is a species-
independent type of evolution, as
demonstrated by the ability for
numerous invertebrates such as
spiders, weaver ants, and silk
moths to produce silk to capture
prey.
Divergent evolution is the process
where isolated populations of a
species branch out due to
geographical barriers or migration
patterns. Many species have
differentiated due to change in
geographical conditions or natural
selection.
• The presence of grizzly bears and
polar bears is a clear example of
divergent evolution; the latter
equipped for winter conditions
while the former hibernates during
winter.
Coevolution is the process where the
survival of two species is dependent
on each other. They are based on
symbiotic relationships such as
commensalism, predation, and
mutualism.
• Hummingbirds and certain types
of flowers have evolved this way.
The nectar of these flowers have
the nutrients that are suited for
the hummingbird’s diet while
these birds freely pollinate the
plant.
CLASSIFICATION AND EVOLUTION
TAXONOMY
 Concerned with classifying organisms.
 Was developed by a Swedish botanist named Carl Linnaeus
CARL LINNAEUS
 Classified all known organism by their shared characteristics
 Introduced a system of assigning a standard, two-word Latin name to each
organism
 K, P, C, O, F, G, S
 The Linnaean classification
system has limitations.
– Linnaeus taxonomy doesn’t account for molecular evidence such as DNA
sequencing.
– Linnaean system based only on physical similarities.
Modern classification is based on evolutionary relationships.

• Physical similarities are

not always the result of
close relationships.

• Genetic similarities more

accurately show
evolutionary relationships.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/natural-
selection/phylogeny/v/understanding-and-building-
phylogenetic-trees-or-cladograms
Carefully examine
the picture, then
make a comparison
of the two pictures.

What does it say?

Topology
The topology is the branching structure of the
tree. It is of particular biological significance
because it indicates patterns of relatedness
among taxa, meaning that trees with the same
topology and root have the same biological
interpretation.
Cladistics is classification based on common
ancestry.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history for a

group of species.
– evidence from living species, fossil
record, and molecular data is used
– shown with branching tree diagrams
like below
According to this cladogram, oystercatchers are
more closely related to flamingos than to
penguins.
Which of the following statements provides the
best justification for this relationship?

a. Oystercatchers share a more recent

common ancestor with flamingos than with
penguins.
b. Oystercatchers share a common ancestor
with flamingos but not with penguins.
c. Both Oystercatchers and Flamingos are less
closely related to the outgroup than
penguins are.
d. The branch of the cladogram with
Oystercatchers is closer to the branch with
flamingos than to the branch with
penguins.
– Cladistics is a common method to make evolutionary trees.

– species placed in order that they descended from

common ancestor
• A cladogram is an evolutionary tree made using cladistics.
– A clade is a group of species that shares a common
ancestor.

– Each species
in a clade
shares some
traits with the
ancestor.
– Each species
in a clade has
traits that have
changed.
• Derived characters are traits shared in different degrees
by clade members.

– basis of arranging
1 Tetrapoda clade

2 Amniota clade
species in 3 Reptilia clade
4 Diapsida clade
cladogram
5 Archosauria clade

– more closely
related species FEATHERS &
TOOTHLESS

share more
BEAKS.

SKULL OPENINGS IN

derived characters
FRONT OF THE EYE &
IN THE JAW

OPENING IN THE SIDE OF

– represented on
THE SKULL

SKULL OPENINGS BEHIND THE EYE

cladogram as EMBRYO PROTECTED BY AMNIOTIC FLUID

hash marks FOUR LIMBS WITH DIGITS

DERIVED CHARACTER
 CLADE
1 Tetrapoda clade

2 Amniota clade

3 Reptilia clade
4 Diapsida clade
5 Archosauria clade

• Nodes represent FEATHERS AND

the most recent TOOTHLESS

BEAKS.

common ancestor
SKULL OPENINGS IN
FRONT OF THE EYE AND
IN THE JAW

of a clade. OPENING IN THE SIDE OF

THE SKULL

SKULL OPENINGS BEHIND THE EYE

• Clades can be
EMBRYO PROTECTED BY AMNIOTIC FLUID

identified by NODE FOUR LIMBS WITH DIGITS

DERIVED CHARACTER

snipping a branch
under a node.
Molecular evidence reveals
species’ relatedness.
– Molecular data may confirm classification based on physical similarities.
– Molecular data may lead scientists to propose a new classification.

• DNA is usually given the last word by scientists.

 Examples of scientific classification
– Classification systems are used to organize information. Most systems of
classification use standard principles of organization, where data is divided into
the broadest categories and then organized into subgroups.
– Look at each fingerprint below. Criminologists use a system for classifying
fingerprints to make it easier to compare. What categories would you divide
them in to?
How scientists describe fingerprints:
– Loops: start and end on the same side, which is the
same side as the opening of the loop.
– Arches: go from one side to the other
– Whorls: roughly circular, ridge lines go all the way
around.