Chapter 8 - Nervous System

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM 1
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
2. Classification
of neurons
1. Organization 3. Central
of Nervous Nervous System
System NERVOUS SYSTEM -Brain
-Spinal cord
4. Peripheral 5. Autonomic Nervous

Nervous System System
- Cranial nerves - Somatic VS autonomic
- Spinal nerves - Sympathetic VS
- Reflex action parasympathetic
3
BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

LESSON OUTCOMES
At the end of the chapter, student should able to:
1. Describe an organization of the nervous system

2. Describe and explain structural and functional classification of
neurons
3. Describe the structure and function of the brain and spinal cord
4. Describe the structure in peripheral nervous system
5. Describe and explain spinal reflex arc.
6. Differentiate somatic and autonomic nervous system.
7. Describe and explain the division of autonomic nervous system
8. Differentiate sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
4

Communication center and
decision maker
Master control center

that coordinate and
monitor the other body
systems
Nervous system
allows us to perceive,
comprehend, and
respond to the5world
around us.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Communication center and decision maker
• Nervous systems receive sensory input, interpret it, and send out
appropriate commands.
• Three interconnected functions:
* sensory input
* integration
* motor output

Organization of Nervous System
⚫ Communication center
and decision maker
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Central Peripheral
nervous nervous
system system
12
Brain Spinal cord
A plastinated cadaver’s central
and peripheral nervous system as
shown in the Denver Museum of
Nature and Science’s exhibit
“Body Worlds.
13
Central nervous system and peripheral

nervous system, removed from the body
NERVOUS SYSTEM
CENTRAL NERVOUS PERIPHERAL NERVOUS

SYSTEM SYSTEM
Brain Spinal Cord Somatic Autonomic

Nervous Nervous
System System
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
NS NS 14
ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
Structural classification
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
16

CLASSIFICATION
OF NEURONS
Structural Functional
Classification Classification
17

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
1) By the number of neurites extending from the cell body
• Unipolar
• One neurite
• Found mainly in PNS
• Most sensory neuron
• Bipolar
• Two neurites
• Rare: sense organs’ receptor cells in the eye,
ear, and nose
• Multipolar
• Many neurites
• Most common in humans
• Major type in CNS
• Most motor neurons and association neurons 18

1) STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
20

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
▪ Sensory (afferent) neurons
▪ Carry impulse from sensory receptors to CNS
▪ Most are unipolar
▪ Some are bipolar
Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system
▪ Interneurons Cell body Dendrites

▪ A.k.a association Sensory
neurons
Cell body
receptor
Axon Axon
▪ Link neurons (central process) (peripheral process)
▪ Multipolar
Sensory (afferent) neuron
Interneurons
▪ Located in CNS
Motor (efferent) neuron
▪ Motor (efferent) neurons Axon
▪ Multipolar Effector
(muscle or gland)
▪ Carry impulses away from Axon

Axon
terminal
CNS
▪ Carry impulses to effectors 21
21
Sensory neuron Interneuron Motor Neuron
Short dendrites
Length of Long dendrites and Short dendrites
and short or long
Fibers short axon and long axons
axon
Cell body and Dendrites and the

dendrite are outside cell body are
Entirely within the
of the spinal cord; located in the
Location spinal cord or
the cell body is spinal cord; the
CNS
located in a dorsal axon is outside of
root ganglion the spinal cord
Interconnect the
Conduct impulse
Conduct impulse to sensory neuron
Function to an effector
the spinal cord with appropriate
(muscle or 22gland)
motor neuron
Understanding CNS structure
through development
23

Understanding CNS structure
through development
Neurulation is the stage of

organogenesis during which the
neural tube is transformed into
the primitive structures that will
later develop into the central
nervous system.
24

Early Embryonic Development
⚫ From the ectoderm comes a groove

that will become the neural tube
(20 days after conception) →
become CNS.
⚫ This tube remains as the
ventricles in the brain.
⚫ Between the neural tube and
developing epidermis, a neural crest
forms → PNS ganglia.
25

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF
THE NS
• 4 week after conception
• The anterior end of the neural tube expands and constricts
to form the three primary brain vesicles
• Prosencephalon – forebrain
• Mesencephalon – midbrain
• Rhombencephalon – hindbrain
26
26
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE NS
• In week 5 of these region differentiate into 5 regions:

• The forebrain divides into the telencephalon and
diencephalon.
• Mesencephalon remains undivided
• The hindbrain divides into the metencephalon and
myelencephalon.
27
27
EMBRYONIC
DEVELOPMENT OF THE NS
28
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN
29
EMBRYONIC
DEVELOPMENT OF THE
BRAIN
30
DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
FOREBRAIN
32

Brain structure
• Consist 3 main regions:
3
33
FOREBRAIN
Forebrain
• Telencephalon (cerebrum)
• Diencephalon
Cerebrum
• Derived from the telencephalon
• Largest part of the human brain (80%)
• Involves in perception, cognition, higher motor functions
• Conscious mind located here. (communication, remember,
understand, initiate voluntary movements etc)
• Functions:
a. to receive sensory input, carry out integration and
commanding voluntary motor responses.
b. to coordinate the activities of the other parts of the brains.
c. for learning and memory.
d. for language and speech. 34
CEREBRUM
Divided into 2 halves:
a) Left hemisphere
b) Right hemisphere
Each hemisphere chiefly concerned with the
sensory and motor functions of the opposite
side of the body.
35

Cerebrum
⚫ Right and left cerebral hemisphere connected
internally by the corpus callosum
Corpus callosum – a thick band of

Connection through this network
axons enables communication
allowing the right hand to know what
betweenthetheleft
right and the left
hand is doing. 36
cerebral cortex.
Corpus callosum – a thick band of axons enables communication between the
right and the left cerebral cortex.

38
If you point one
finger behind the
screen (without
being able to see),
do you think your
other finger able to
guess the position?
39
Mentally retarded
(Macrocephaly, damaged cerebellum)
“Living Google”
(Exceptional memory)
↓
Memorize up to 10,000 books
The only savant known to science who could

read two pages of a book simultaneously.
Corpus callosum completely missing 40
BIO310 / Nervous / NHM (Agenesis)

CEREBRAL CORTEX
• The outer region composed of gray matter with underlying

white matter.
• Convolutions allow the cortex to have a large surface area
and still fit inside the skull.
• Gyri = elevated ridges
• Sulci = depressions
• Fissures = big sulci
41

MAJOR PARTS OF THE HUMAN
BRAIN (FOREBRAIN)

LOBES OF CEREBRUM
• Deep sulci divide the hemispheres into 5 lobes:
• Frontal (speech, motor cortex)
• Parietal (taste, reading)
• Temporal (smell, hearing, memory)
• Occipital (vision)
• Insula (separates frontal and temporal lobes)
• Central sulcus – separates the frontal and parietal lobes
43

44
45
46

TEMPORAL, OCCIPITAL, AND INSULA
• Temporal lobe: auditory centers
• Occipital lobe: vision and coordination of eye movements
• Insula: encoding of memory and integration of sensory
information with visceral responses; receives olfactory, gustatory,
auditory, and pain information
47
FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBRUM
48
49
DIENCEPHALON
50
DIENCEPHALON
• Central core of the forebrain
• Encloses the third ventricle
• Consists of three paired structures:
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Epithalamus
51

DIENCEPHALON: THALAMUS
• Thalamus : “Inner room”
• Paired, egg-shaped masses that form the superolateral
walls of the third ventricle
• Relay center for information coming into cerebral cortex.
• Information is sorted out and edited.
• Promotes a state of arousal from sleep and alertness
52

DIENCEPHALON: HYPOTHALAMUS
• Located below the thalamus (Below : hypo)

• Infundibulum – stalk of the hypothalamus
• Connects to the pituitary gland
• Main visceral control center of the body (control ANS)
53

Regulates blood pressure, rate and
force of heartbeat, digestive tract
motility, and many other visceral activities
Regulation of body
temperature
HYPOTHALAMIC
FUNCTION
Perception of pleasure, fear, and rage.
Regulates feelings of hunger and Control endocrine

54
satiety (regulate food intake, water Regulates sleep and function: release and
balance and thirst). the sleep cycle inhibiting hormones.
HYPOTHALAMIC FUNCTION
• Regulates blood pressure, rate and force of heartbeat,

digestive tract motility, and many other visceral activities
• Is involved with perception of pleasure, fear, and rage.
• Regulation of body temperature
• Regulates feelings of hunger and satiety (regulate food
intake, water balance and thirst).
• Regulates sleep and the sleep cycle
• Control endocrine function: control release and inhibiting
hormones.
55

DIENCEPHALON: EPITHALAMUS
• Most dorsal portion of the diencephalon; forms roof
of the third ventricle
• Pineal gland – secretes melatonin
• Melatonin – a hormone involved with sleep regulation,
sleep-wake cycles, and mood.
56
BRAIN STEM
57
BRAINSTEM
• Positioned between cerebrum and

spinal cord.
• Consist of three parts; medulla
oblongata, pons and the midbrain
• Function: homeostasis,
coordination of movement, and
conduction of information to
higher brain centers.
58

Midbrain
Functions:
a. acts as a relay station for tracts passing between the cerebrum
and the spinal cord or cerebellum.
b. has reflex centres for visual, auditory, and tactile responses.
Pons
Functions:
a. regulate breathing rate together
with medulla oblongata.
b. has reflex centres concerned
with head movement in
c. response to visual and auditory
stimuli.
Medulla oblongata
• contain centers that control visceral functions (breathing,
swallowing, heart and blood vessel activity)
• Role as autonomic reflex center
i. Cardiovascular center
ii. Respiratory center
iii. Others: vomitting, hiccuping, swallowing, coughing,
sneezing.
60

CEREBELLUM
• Located dorsal to the pons and medulla
• Protrudes under the occipital lobes of the cerebrum
• Makes up 11% of the brain’s mass
• Provides precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle
contraction (motor function).
• Maintains posture and balance.
• Assists the learning of the new motor skills.
61
SPINAL CORD
Two primary function of spinal cord :

1. Serving as a link for transmission of
information between the brain and the
remainder of the body.
2. Integrating reflex activity between afferent
input and efferent output without involving 62
the brain
SPINAL CORD
• The spinal cord enclosed in the vertebral column.
• Cross section – looks like H letter or like a butterfly figure.
• Two-way conduction pathway to and from the brain.
• It is a major reflex center.
•
63
64
SPINAL CORD
• Composed of white matter surrounding a gray matter core
• The gray matter is arranged with dorsal horn and ventral
horn on both right and left side.
• All neurons whose cell bodies are in the spinal cord gray matter
are multipolar.
• White matter composed of myelinated and unmyelinated nerve
fibers that allow communication between the cord and the
brain.
65

• Each spinal nerves connects to the spinal cord via dorsal and
ventral root.
• Dorsal (posterior) root – contain sensory fibers and conduct
impulses from peripheral receptors to the spinal cord.
• Ventral (anterior) root – contain motor fibers and extend to
innervate skeletal muscles
66

67
68
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
69

• Consists of nerve fibers that carry info between CNS

and other parts of the body.
• Sensory receptors – are specialized to detect and
respond to the environmental changes or so called
stimuli (a change detectable by the body)
70

Classification by stimulus type detected
a) Photoreceptors
• respond to light (photo) energy; especially in retina
b) Chemoreceptors
• respond to chemicals in solutions.
• Eg: molecules smelled or tasted, or changes in blood chemistry or
interstitial chemistry.
c) Nociceptors
• respond to potentially damaging stimuli that result in pain.
• Eg: Extreme heat, cold, excess pressure and all interpreted as painful.
71

d) Mechanoreceptors
• Impulse generated when they are deformed by a
mechanical forces.
• Eg: touch, pressure, vibration, stretch, etc.
e) Thermoreceptors
• sensitive to temperature changes
72
Classification by location
a) Exteroceptors
• Sensitive to stimuli arising outside the body; most of
them located near or at body surface.
• Include touch, pain, pressure, temperature receptors of
the skin and most special senses receptors.
b) Interoceptors = visceroceptors
• Respond to the stimuli within the body.
Eg: internal visceral organs and blood vessel.
• Monitor variety of stimuli (chemical changes, tissue stretch, and
temperature.
c) Proprioceptors
⚫ Location is more restricted. Respond to internal stimuli.
Occur in joints, skeletal muscle, tendons, ligaments, and
73
in
connective tissue.
CRANIAL AND SPINAL NERVES
CRANIAL NERVES
• Part of the PNS
• Nerves that arise directly from nuclei in the brain
• Twelve pairs (12 pairs)
• Mixed nerves with both sensory and motor neurons
• Those associated with vision, olfaction, and hearing
sensory only
76

CRANIAL NERVES
78

SPINAL NERVES
• Part of the PNS
• Nerves that arise directly from the spinal
cord
• 31 pairs: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5
sacral, 1 coccygeal
• All are mixed nerves that separate near the
spinal cord into a dorsal root carrying sensory
fibers and a ventral root carrying motor
fibers.
79

80
81
REFLEX ARC
REFLEX ARC – the neural
pathway involved in
accomplishing reflex activity
82
REFLEX ACTIVITY
• Fast, automatic, unplanned sequence of action that occurs
in response to a particular stimulus.
• Integration occur in spinal cord gray matter = reflex is a
spinal reflex.
• Occur in brain stem = cranial reflex.
83

REFLEX ARC
Five functional components
1. Receptors/sensory receptor: site of the stimulus action
2. Sensory neurons: transmit sensory impulse to the CNS
3. Integration center
4. Motor neurons: conducts efferent/motor impulses from
integration center to effector organ
5. Effector: muscle fibers or glands that responds to the
motor impulses (contracting/secreting)

• Reflexes are classified functionally as:
▪ Somatic reflexes : if they activate skeletal muscle
▪ Autonomic (visceral) reflexes : if they activate
visceral muscle. (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
and glands)

• Stimulus → impulses along afferent PNS fibers → CNS → create
sensation (awareness of the stimulus) and perception (conscious
interpretation of the meaning of the stimulus) → efferent fibers
→ effector
86

THE PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
(PNS)
AUTONOMIC VS SOMATIC NS

(PNS)
Peripheral
nervous system
Somatic Autonomic
nervous nervous
system system
Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric

division division division

ANS VERSUS SOMATIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM (SNS)
• The ANS differs from the SNS in the following three areas
i. Effectors
ii. Efferent pathways
iii. Target organ responses

ANS VERSUS SOMATIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM (SNS)
a) Somatic
• Efferent output to skeletal muscle.
• Directed toward voluntarily controlled nonhomeostatic
activities.
b) Autonomic
• Neural control on various effectors composed of cardiac
and smooth muscle and gland tissue.
• Efferent output influence either in movement and
secretion.
• Directed toward maintaining homeostasis.
EFFECTORS
• The effectors of the SNS : skeletal muscles
• The effectors of the ANS : cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and
glands
EFFERENT PATHWAYS
• SNS: Heavily myelinated axons of the somatic motor neurons
extend from the CNS to the effector, one-neuron chain.
• ANS: Axons of the ANS are a two-neurons chain
• The preganglionic (first) neuron has a lightly myelinated axon
• The postganglionic (second) neuron extends to an effector organ.
NEUROTRANSMITTER EFFECTS
• SNS: All somatic motor neurons release
Acetylcholine (ACh), which has an stimulatory
effect
• In the ANS:
• Preganglionic fibers release ACh
• Postganglionic fibers release noradrenaline or
ACh and the effect is either stimulatory or
inhibitory
NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND RECEPTORS
• Acetylcholine (ACh) and noradrenaline (NA) are the

two major neurotransmitters of the ANS
• Cholinergic fibers – ACh-releasing fibers
• Adrenergic fibers – sympathetic postganglionic
axons that release NA
• Neurotransmitter effects can be excitatory or
inhibitory depending upon the receptor

COMPARISON OF SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC
SYSTEMS

THE AUTONOMIC
NERVOUS SYSTEM
(ANS)
SYMPATHETIC VS PARASYMPATHETIC

INTERACTIONS OF THE AUTONOMIC DIVISIONS
• Most visceral organs are innervated by both sympathetic and

parasympathetic fibers.
• Results in dynamic antagonisms that precisely control visceral
activity
1. Sympathetic : mobilizes the body during extreme situations
2. Parasympathetic : performs maintenance activities and
conserves body energy.

ROLE OF THE SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
• The sympathetic division is the “fight-or-flight” system
• Mobilizes the body during extreme situations
• Involves E activities – exercise, excitement, emergency, and
embarrassment

ROLE OF THE SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
• Promotes adjustments during exercise – blood flow to
organs is reduced, flow to muscles is increased
• Its activity is illustrated by a person who is threatened
• Heart rate increases, and breathing is rapid and deep
• The skin is cold and sweaty, and the pupils dilate

ROLE OF THE PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
• ‘Rest and digest’ system
• Concerned with keeping body energy use low
• Performs maintenance activities and conserves body
energy.
• Involves the D activities –
digestion, defecation, and diuresis

ROLE OF THE PARASYMPATHETIC
DIVISION
• Its activity is illustrated in a person who
relaxes after a meal
• Blood pressure low
• Heart rate low
• Respiratory rates are low
• Gastrointestinal tract activity is high
• The skin is warm and the pupils are
constricted

THE END

Chapter 8 - Nervous System

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BIO310 / Nervous / NHM 1

4. Peripheral 5. Autonomic Nervous

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

At the end of the chapter, student should able to:

1. Describe an organization of the nervous system

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

Master control center

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

Central nervous system and peripheral

CENTRAL NERVOUS PERIPHERAL NERVOUS

Brain Spinal Cord Somatic Autonomic

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

▪ Interneurons Cell body Dendrites

▪ Carry impulses away from Axon

Cell body and Dendrites and the

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

Neurulation is the stage of

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

⚫ From the ectoderm comes a groove

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

• In week 5 of these region differentiate into 5 regions:

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

Corpus callosum – a thick band of

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM 37

The only savant known to science who could

Corpus callosum completely missing 40

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM (Agenesis)

• The outer region composed of gray matter with underlying

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM 42

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

• Located below the thalamus (Below : hypo)

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

Regulates feelings of hunger and Control endocrine

• Regulates blood pressure, rate and force of heartbeat,

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

• Positioned between cerebrum and

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

Two primary function of spinal cord :

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

• Consists of nerve fibers that carry info between CNS

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM 84

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM 85

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM 88

Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric

BIO310 / Nervous / NHM 89