Nervous

NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION
NERVOUS SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
• As you know, the functions of the

organs/organ systems in our body must be
coordinated to maintain homeostasis.
• Coordination is the process through which

two or more organs interact and complement
the functions of one another.
Difference between Neural & Endocrine coordination
NEURAL SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
NERVE IMPULSE INTEGRATIVE HORMONE

SYSTEMS
TARGET ORGAN TARGET ORGAN
 POINT TO POINT CONNECTION  POINT TO POINT CONNECTION

 FAST SPEED SERVICE  SLOW SPEED SERVICE
 RESPONSE-  RESPONSE-
QUICK BUT SHORT LIVED SLOW BUT LONG LIVED
 MESSAGE DISTRIBUTION-  MESSAGE DISTRIBUTION-
EXACT LOCATION WIDESPREAD LOCATION
Difference between Neural & Endocrine coordination
• In our body the neural system and the endocrine

system jointly coordinate and integrate all the
activities of the organs so that they function in a
synchronised fashion.
• The neural system provides an organised

network of point-to-point connections for a quick
coordination.
• The endocrine system provides chemical

integration through hormones.
NEURAL SYSTEM
• The neural system of all animals is composed of

highly specialised cells called neurons which
can detect, receive and transmit different kinds
of stimuli.
Detect – Sensitivity
Receive – Excitability
Transmit – Conductivity
NEURAL ORGANISATION
The neural organisation is very
simple in lower vertebrates. For
example, in Hydra it is composed of
network of neurons.
The neural system is

better organised in insects
where a brain is present
along with a number of
ganglia and neural tissues).
NEURAL ORGANISATION
The vertebrates have a

more developed neural
system.
HUMAN NEURAL SYSTEM
NEURAL SYSTEM
CENTRAL NEURAL SYSTEM PERIPHERAL NEURAL SYSTEM
SPINAL CRANIAL &

BRAIN
CORD SPINAL NERVES
SITE OF AFFERENT
INFORMATION (SENSORY)&
PROCESSING EFFERENT(MOTOR)
AND CONTROL NERVE FIBERS
SOMATIC NEURAL AUTONOMIC NEURAL

SYSTEM (SNS) SYSTEM (ANS)
Sensory/Afferent
CNS ORGAN RELAY IMPULSES RELAY IMPULSES

BETWEEN CNS & BETWEEN CNS &
Motor/Efferent
SKELETAL MUSCLE SMOOTH MUSCLE
HUMAN NEURAL SYSTEM
AUTONOMIC NEURAL SYSTEM (ANS)
EFFERENT(MOTOR) AFFERENT(SENSORY)
PARASYMPATHETI
SYMPATHETIC
C
N.S.
N.S.
RELAY IMPULSES
FROM CNS TO
SMOOTH MUSCLE
NERVOUS TISSUE
• Origin of nervous system – Ectodermal
 Nervous system is composed of nervous tissue.
Nervous tissue
Neuron / Nerve cell Neuroglial / Glial cells

These are supporting cells which forms
packing substance around neurons.
CNS PNS
1. Astrocytes 1. Schwann cells
2. Oligodendrocytes
3. Microgliocytes
NERVOUS TISSUE
• • • • •
• • •
• CNS=NUCLEI
• PNS=GANGLIA
• •
• • • •
•
• • •
• • • •
• • • •
CNS= TRACT
PNS= NERVE
• • • •
• • • • •
• • • •
• •
NEUROGLIAL CELLS OF CNS
1. ASTROCYTE
 Ectodermal in origin.
PARTICIPATES
IN BLOOD BRAIN
BARRIER
2. OLIGODENDROCYTE
FORMATION OF
MYELIN SHEATH
IN CNS
3. MICROGLIAL CELLS
 Mesodermal in origin.
HELPS IN
PHAGOCYTOSIS
NEUROGLIAL CELLS OF PNS
1. SCHWANN CELLS
FORMATION OF
MYELIN SHEATH
IN PNS
NEURON (NERVE CELL)
 Structural and functional unit of neural

system.
 Neuron is a microscopic structure.

SENSITIVITY,
EXCITABILITY,
CONDUCTIVITY.
 Neuron is composed of three major parts
(i) Cell body / Cyton / Soma / Perikaryon

(ii) Dendrites
(iii) Axon
1. CYTON / CELL BODY
Receptors
NISSL’s GRANULES It contains centrally located
nucleus in neuroplasm.
NEUROFIBRIL Irregularly shaped.
Nissl’s granule :-
CYTON RER + Clusters of free
Ribosomes
• Protein synthesis
• Found only in Dendron &
Cyton.
NOTE :- • Proteins are used in
Centriole :- metabolism and repairing.
It is present
Neurofibrils:-
before birth.
• Microtubule and
So division
microfilament like
is possible
structure.
in neuron,
Found in
but it is
Dendron, Cyton and Axon.
absent in
• Helps in internal
neuron after
conduction of nerve
the birth.
impulse.
2. DENDRON / DENDRITES
Neurotransmitter like Ach Receptors
NEUROTRANSMITTER
RECEPTOR
NUCLEUS
DENDRON
NEUROFIBRIL
NISSL’s GRANULE
Highly branched structure,

Branches = Dendrites,
Afferent part
(Centripetal conduction)
Cytoplasm is dendroplasm
Nissl’s granules
&
Neurofibrils are present.
3. AXON / NERVE FIBRE
AXON HILLOCK OR
SPIKE INITIATION ZONE Longest part of neuron
(TRIGGER ZONE)
It is also called nerve fibre
SCHWANN CELL
NUCLEUS It is the efferent fibre / part
NODE OF
RANVIER Centrifugal conduction
AXON
Main functional and structural part
AXOPLASM Mainly neurofibrils & mitochondria +
AXOLEMMA Action potential travels through this

MYELIN
SHEATH Nissl’s granules are absent
NEURILEMMA
Terminal part is called telodendria
TELODENDRIA
SYNAPTIC KNOB (SYNAPTIC VESICLES)
TYPES OF NEURON
ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF POLES
(1) APOLAR / NON POLAR NEURON
1. No definite dendron /axon

2. Cell process are either
absent or if present are
not differentiated in axon
and Dendron.
3. Nerve impulse radiates in

all directions
CYTO
CYTON 4. E.g.:- Hydra,
N
Amacrine
cell of
retina
(2) UNIPOLAR NEURON
1. Single process arises from

cyton.
2. Single process is always

axon.
AXON
3. E.g.:- EMBRYONIC
NEURON
CYTO
N
(3) BIPOLAR NEURON 1. Two process arises

from cyton.
2. One is Dendron
and another is axon.
DENDRON
CYTON
AXON
3. E.g.:- RETINA
CYTO OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM
N
(4) MULTIPOLAR NEURON
DENDRON
1. Neuron which have one axon &
many dendrons.
CYTON
2. E.g.:-
Most of neurons
of vertebrates.
(cerebral cortex )
CYTO AXON
N
(5) PSEUDOUNIPOLAR NEURON
CYTON 1. Nerve cell has only axon but

a small process develop from
axon which act as dendron.
2. E.g.:-
DORSAL ROOT
AXON GANGLIA OF
SPINAL CORD
CYTO
N
ON THE BASIS OF FUNCTION
NEURON
INTER NEURON
SENSORY OR MOTOR
NEURON INTERNUNCIAL NEURON
OR
INTER CONNECTING
NEURON
SENSORY CNS
ORGAN • SMALLEST NEURON
• UMNYELINATED EFFECTOR
CNS NEURON ORGAN
• HIGHLY BRANCHED
NEURON
ON THE BASIS OF FUNCTION
MOTOR
NEURON
SENSORY
INTER
NEURON
NEURON
ON THE BASIS OF TYPE OF NEUROTRANSMITTER
NEURON
EXCITATORY / STIMULATORY INHIBITORY
Acetylcholine (Ach) GABA
Nor-epinephrine / Nor-adrenaline / Dopamine

Sympathetein
Glycine
Serotonin
MYELINOGENESIS (MYELIN SHEATH FORMATION)
 Axon is covered by a layer of phospholipid
(SPHINGOMYELIN) which is called myelin sheath
or medullary sheath.
 Myelin sheath acts as an electrical insulator as it
prevents the leakage of ions across the
membrane.
 There are two types of nerve fibres :-
(1) Myelinated / Medullated
(2) Non-Myelinated / Non-Medullated
 Myelinogenesis :-
(1) In CNS :- By Oligodendrocytes

(2) In PNS :- By Schwann cells
MYELINOGENESIS IN PNS
Schwann cell
MYELINATED Concentric
NEURON rings of
myelin
Outer
cytoplasmic
& nucleated
layer of
schwann
cell
 Unmyelinated nerve fibre is enclosed by a Schwann
cell that does not form a myelin sheath around the
axon, and is commonly found in autonomous and the
somatic neural systems.
NON-MYELINATED
NEURON
Schwann cell
CYTOPLASMIC
AXON LAYER OF
SCHWAN CELL
(NEURILEMMA)
MYELINOGENESIS IN CNS
 In CNS myelin sheath is formed by oligodendrocytes.
OLIGODENDROCYTE
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)
4 DIFFERENT STAGES
1. POLARISATION (Resting/Excitable)
2. DEPOLARISATION (Excited)
3. REPOLARISATION (Re-resting)
4. HYPERPOLARISATION
IONIC CONCENTRATION
BASIC CONCEPT -1 IN ECF & ICF
EXTRA
Na+ K+ Cl- CELLULAR
FLUID
K+ Na+ PO4
Na 2- INTRA
CELLULAR
Negatively Charged Proteins
FLUID
(AXOPLASM)
AXOLEMMA
BASIC CONCEPT -2 DIFRRENT TRANS - MEMBRANE PROTEINS
ECF
Ions channels or Na+- k+ Pump Voltage Gated channels

leak channels or Na+- k+ ATPase Pump (VGCs)
Na+
3Na+
Na+
k+ k+ k+
2k+ k+
ICF ATP ADP + PO42- Na+ VGC K+ VGC
AXOLEMMA
1. POLARISATION
Membrane is polarised
(-ve from inside & +ve from outside)
++ +++ + ++
- - - - - - - -
The potential difference across a resting

membrane is called Resting Membrane Potential.
RMP= -70 mV
Average = -60 mV to -85 mV
+
ECF
+ + Ca Ca
+2 +2
+ - + + ++
P V V
K Na Channel K
Na U + +
Channel Channel K M Na G K G
P C C
- + - P
- - CLOSED CLOSED
+ OPEN + AD +
– K P
a s e +
AT N P a
P
AT OPEN
ICF +
Factors contributing to the negativity of axonal membrane /

axolemma on the inner side during resting stage are :-
1. (Leak Channels)K+ >>>> (Leak Channels)Na+

When a neuron is not conducting any impulse, i.e.
resting, the axonal membrane is comparatively more
permeable to K+ ions and nearly impermeable to Na+
ions.
2. Na+ - K+ ATPase Pump is working

3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in
3. Presence of non-diffusible negatively charged

proteins in the axoplasm.
RESTING STAGE
LEAK CHANNEL Na+ -K+ Pump Na+ VGC K+ VGC
√ √ × ×
MAMBRANE POTENTIAL WITH VALUE (mV) INSIDE CHARGE
+ + + NEGATIVE
- - -
- - -
Na+ -K+ Pump IS
+ + + MAINLY
*RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL RESPONSIBLE FOR
(RMP) -70mV. POLARISATION.
2. DEPOLARISATION
Membrane is depolarised
(+ve from inside & -ve from outside)
- - - - - - - -
+++++++++
+
+
ECF Few Na+ VGC are open +
+ Ca Ca
+ +2 +2
+ - + ----
P V + V
STIMULU K NaChannel K Na
K
U +
Na GK G
S Channel Channel M
-
P C C
- + ++++
+ +
OPEN CLOSED OPEN CLOSED
Influx of few Na+ ions causes change from

– 70 mv to -55/60 mv.
Potential difference of -10/-15 mv (THRESHOLD
STIMULUS) stimulates the opening of more Na+
VGC.
ICF
THRESHOLD +
+
+
+
STIMULUS + Na +
+ Ca + + Ca Ca
+ +2 +2 +2
+ - +
P V V V
Na U + + +
GK
K NaChannel K
Channel Channel K M Na G Na G
P C C C
- + -
+ +
OPEN CLOSED OPEN OPEN CLOSED
ACTION POTENTIAL
- - - - - - - -
/ NERVE IMPULSE +++++++++
( +30/45 MV)
DEPOLARISATION
Stimulus induces the opening of a few Na+ VGCs which increases

the permeability of axonal membrane for Na+ ions. As a result,
Na+ ions diffuses inside the membrane.
Potential reaches from -70mV to -55mV/-60mV. This potential

now reached is referred to as the Threshold Potential, and the
change of +10mV/+15mV in potential is referred to as the
Threshold Stimulus.
As the threshold potential is reached, a large number of Na+

VGCs becomes active leading to rapid influx of Na+ ions, due to
which the membrane’s polarity gets reversed and hence is called
the Depolarised membrane.
The potential now achieved, values to +30mV/+40mV and is

referred to as the Action Potential / Spike / Nerve Impulse.
EXCITED STAGE (NERVE IMPULSE OR ACTION POTENTIAL)
√ × √ ×
POSITIVE
- - -
STIMULUS + + +
+ + +
- - -
*IONS RESPONSIBLE FOR DEPOLARISATION ARE SODIUM (INFLUX )
Action potential
+30 to +45mV Over shoot
Due to maximum Na+ ions concentration inside axon.
0mV
Negative charge cancelled out first due to rapid
influx of Na+ ions.
-60 to -55mV
Threshold Stimulus (+10 to +15mV)
-70mV(RMP)
3. REPOLARISATION
AT THE END OF DEPOLARISATION,
Na+ VGCs GET CLOSED and
K+ VGCs OPENS
WITHIN FRACTION OF SECONDS,
K+ DIFFUSES OUTSIDE THE MEMBRANE AND
THE POTENTIAL OF -70mV IS REACHED.
MEMBRANE BECOMES REPOLARISED AND IS
RESPONSIVE FOR FURTHER STIMULATION.
The time taken for restoration of resting

potential is called refractory period,
because during this period the membrane is
incapable of receiving another impulse.
+
+ + Ca2+ Ca2+
++++++
+ - + + ++
P V + V
K NaChannel K Na
K
U +
Na G K G
Channel Channel M
P C C
- + - P
- - - - -K - - -
+ + AD + +
P
a –K + K
AT N ase + K
P ATP OPEN CLOSED +
KOPEN
+ K
OPEN
+ K + K
+ +
K
K
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - - -
- 70 mv
REPOLARISATION
NOW NEURON IS PREPEARED TO

RECEIVE ANOTHER STIMULUS
RERESTING STAGE
√ √ × √
* -70mV –DUE TO RAPID EFFLUX (OUT FLOW) OF NEGATIVE

POTASSIUM IONS FROM EXON.
+ + +
- - -
- - -
+ + +
*IONS RESPONSIBLE FOR REPOLARISATION ARE K+ IONS.
GENERAL CONDUCTION
NON-MYELINATED
NERVE FIBRE
OUTER CURRENT DIRECTION
SALTATORY CONDUCTION = B TO A
SITE A SITE B
MYELINATED UNIDIRECTIONAL
NERVE FIBRE FLOW OF
CONDUCTION
INNER CURRENT DIRECTION

= A TO B
A TO B & B TO A = COMPELETION
OF LOCAL CURCUIT
TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
[ SYNAPSE ]
DEFINITION OF SYNAPSE
• information
It is the junctional region between two neurons where
is transferred from one neuron to another.
• Telodendria of one neuron form synapse with dendron

of another neuron.
II neuron
I neuron
Dendron
[ Post-Synaptic
Telodendria Membrane ]
[ Pre-Synaptic
Membrane ] SYNAPSE
SYNAPSE = PRESYNAPTIC MEMBRANE + SYNAPTIC CLEFT + POSTSYNAPTIC MEMBRANE

[ SYNAPSE ]
SYNAPSE
CHEMICAL SYNAPSE ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE
SYNAPTIC CLEFT > 20 nm SYNAPTIC CLEFT = 0.2 nm

[ SYNAPSE ]
CHEMICAL SYNAPSE
[ SYNAPSE ]
Neurotransmitters or Neurohumors
or Neurohormones
Stimulatory Inhibitory
Stimulates impulse at Inhibits impulse at

synapse synapse
e.g. e.g.
1. Acetylcholine (Ach), 1. GABA
2. Nor-epinephrine or (Gamma Amino Butyric Acid)
Nor-adrenaline or 2. Serotonin,
Sympathetin 3. Dopamine,
3. Glutamate 4. Glycine
[ SYNAPSE ]
AXON
AXON TERMINAL
SYNAPTIC VESICLES
PRE-SYNAPTIC MEMBRANE
SYNAPTIC CLEFT
POST-SYNAPTIC MEMBRANE
RECEPTOR
NEUROTRANSMITTER
[ SYNAPSE ]
NEUROTRANSMITTER
( Released from the Pre-synaptic membrane)
Synaptic Cleft
LIGAND GATED CHANNELS ( LGC)

( On Post-synaptic membrane)
GRADED POTENTIAL
( Also known as Post-Synaptic Potential , PSP)
EPSP IPSP
EXCITATORY SYNAPSE INHIBITORY SYNAPSE

 EXCITATORY SYNAPSE
Ca+2
Ca+2
Ca+2
ACETYLCHOLINE
(ACh)
+
+
+
+ +
+
+ + + DEPOLARISATION
+
+
+
EXCITATORY POST
OPENING OF Na LIGAND
+
SYNAPTIC POTENTIAL
GATED CHANNELS (E.P.S.P.)
CHOLINEACETYL
MITOCHONDRIA TRANSFERASE ENZYME
Acetyl Co-A C C
CHOLINE
ACh ACh
ACETIC ACID
ACh ACh
CHOLINESTERASE
Ach Ach ENZYME
Ach Ach
Ach
 INHIBITORY SYNAPSE
Ca+2
Ca+2
Ca
+2
GAMMA AMINO
BUTYRIC ACID
(G.A.B.A.)
- -
-
- -
-
- - - HYPERPOLARISATION
-
-
-
INHIBITORY POST
OPENING OF Cl- LIGAND SYNAPTIC POTENTIAL
GATED CHANNELS (I.P.S.P.)
[ SYNAPSE ]
ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE
Transmission of
impulses across
electrical synapse is
very similar to impulse
conduction along a
single axon.
[ SYNAPSE ]
Electrical Chemical
Conduction Fast Slow
Synaptic cleft 0.2 nm > 20 nm
Neurotransmitter Absent Present
Occurrence in Rare in our Most common

body body
Synaptic delay Absent Present
Blocking Cannot be Controlled by
controlled Neurotransmitter
HISTOLOGY OF NERVOUS TISSUE
GREY MATTER :- It is composed of dendron, cyton,

& non medullary nerve fibers.
WHITE MATTER :- it is composed of myelinated

axons only.
GM WM
WM GM
Position 1 Position 2
e.g.(1)Cerebrum e.g. (1) Spinal cord
(2) cerebellum (2) Medulla oblongata
HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Development of CNS
Telencephalon (cerebrum)
Diencephalon
Mesencephalon
(Mid Brain)
Metencephalon
(cerebellum & Pons)
Myelencephalon
(Medulla oblongata)
Development timing of CNS

Central nervous system
Brain Spinal cord
Approx 70 - 80% 100%

100%
2 years 6 years 4 – 5 years

BRAIN
Weight:- Human male --1400 gm

Human female -- 1250 gm
Position:-
Brain is well protected by skull
Brain is surrounded by cranial bones
1 Frontal bone,
2 Parietal bones,
2 Temporal bone,
1 Occipital bone,
1 Sphenoid bone,
1 Ethmoid bone
(Total 8 cranial bones)
Parietal bones(2)
(1)Frontal bone
Temporal bones(2)
(1)Sphenoid bone
(1)Ethmoid bone
Occipital bone(1)
Coverings of the brain :- Meninx / meninges
Cranial Venous Sinus
1. DURAMATER
2. ARACHNOID
3. PIAMATER
Telachoroidea
Parts of Human Brain
Brain divisions Sub divisions
1. Cerebrum
Fore Brain 2. Diencephalon
(Prosencephalon) 3. Olfactory lobes
(Rhinencephalon)
1. Optic lobes
Mid Brain
(Corpora Quadri gemina)
(Mesencephalon)
2. Crura cerebri
1. Pons
Hind Brain 2. Cerebellum
(Rhombencephalon) 3. Medulla oblongata
FOREBRAIN
Cerebrum
Diencephalon
Olfactory lobes
A. FORE BRAIN- (i) CEREBRUM
Cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres.

A longitudinal groove is present between two cerebral
hemispheres called as median fissure (on the dorsal
surface)
Right Left
cerebral cerebral
hemisphere hemisphere
 Both the cerebral hemispheres are connected by a
tract (myelinated) of nerve fibres called CORPUS
CALLOSUM.
 It provides Coordination between two cerebral
hemispheres.
 It is a Mammalian character.
Ventral side
Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes.
Central sulcus/
rolandic sulcus
e e) l o be
b a l b e)
l lo lob t
rie le lo
ta ior a
P id d
n
o ter
r (M
F n
(a
ri o e
ste lob
r)
Temporal lobe
(po pital
(Lateral lobe)
ci
Oc
Lateral sulcus /
sylvian’s sulcus
Parieto-occipital sulcus
 Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes-
Anterior, Middle, Posterior and Lateral.
Anterior lobe is also called frontal lobe (largest lobe)
Middle lobe is called as parietal lobe.
Frontal lobe is separated by central sulcus or
rolandic sulcus from parietal lobe.
 Lateral lobe or temporal lobe is separated from

frontal lobe & parietal lobe by incomplete sulcus
called lateral sulcus /sylvian sulcus.
 Posterior lobe is called as occipital lobe. It is

separated from parietal lobe by a sulcus called
Parieto occipital sulcus.
SURFACE OF CEREBRUM
Many ridges and grooves are found on dorsal surface of

cerebral hemisphere. Ridge are known as gyri while
grooves are called sulci. These cover the 2/3 part of
cerebrum.
Gyri and sulci are more developed in human beings.

So Human beings are the most intelligent living beings.
CEREBRUM (HISTOLOGY)
GREY WHITE
MATTER MATTER
 The layer of cells which covers the cerebral hemisphere is

called cerebral cortex and is thrown in to prominent folds.
 The cerebral cortex is referred to as the grey matter due

to its greyish appearance.
 The neuron cell bodies are concentrated here giving the

color.
CEREBRUM (HISTOLOGY)
Grey matter White matter

FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF CEREBRUM
ASSOCIATION
SENSORY AREA MOTOR
AREA AREA
MADE UP OF
SENSORY INTERNEURON MOTOR
OR (UNMYELINATED, OR
AFFERENT SAMLLEST, EFFERENT
NEURON HIGHLY NEURON
BRANCHED)
RELATED TO
MEMORY,
COMMUNICATION
BODY PART BODY
& INTERSENSORY
ACTIVITY ASSOCIATION RESPONSE
Sensory area - Analysis of sensory impulses.

Somesthetic area for general sensation.
(Touch, Pain, Temperature etc.)
Motor area – Generation of motor impulses.

Broca's area for fine movement of
tongue and speech and
Motor area for voluntary movement of
limb muscles.
Association area – Large regions that are neither clearly

sensory nor motor in function and are responsible for
complex functions like inter sensory association, memory
and communication.
Somesthetic area
Motor area (Analysis of Touch, temp
(voluntary control) pain, pressure etc.)
Gustatory area
Broca’s area
(speech tal l
( Analysis of Taste)
a
center) r on e rie
t
F lob a
P e Wernicke’s area
lob (Interpretive
PreFrontal Cortex language
(Seat of area)
lob ital
Intelligence)
cip
e
Temporal lobe
Oc
Auditory area
Visual cortex area
Olfactory area (Analysis of vision)
A. FORE BRAIN- (ii) DIENCEPHALON
It is composed of Epithalamus ,
Thalamus , & Hypothalamus.
1.Epithalamus
It is upper or dorsal posterior
part of diencephalon. Pineal
gland is connected with
epithalamus.
2.Thalamus
 Upper lateral wall of
Diencephalon (80% part)
 It acts as a relay centre.
(major coordinating centre
for sensory & motor
signalling)
A. FORE BRAIN- (ii) DIENCEPHALON
Biological clock
system
Endocrine control
Thermoregulation
ANS regulation
Behaviour & Emotion
3.Hypothalamus
Optic
chiasma (Lower ventral surface
Pituitary of diencephalon)
gland
Mammillary body
(Mammalian character)
A. FORE BRAIN- (iii) OLFACTORY LOBES
Diencephalon Olfactory lobe
Cerebrum
Olfactory lobe/bulb
 One pair of broad bean size organ.

Olfactory tract
 Found on ventral surface of frontal lobe.
 It is small spherical, solid structure.
Lateral surface ventral surface

LIMBIC SYSTEM / LIMBIC LOBE / EMOTIONAL BRAIN
 The inner part of cerebral hemispheres and a group of
associated deep structures like Amygdala,
Hippocampus etc. form a complex structure called
Limbic system.
Hypothalamus Thalamus
Olfactory bulb
Hippocampus
Amygdala
LIMBIC SYSTEM / LIMBIC LOBE / EMOTIONAL BRAIN
 Along with the hypothalamus, Limbic system is
involved in the regulation of sexual behaviour,
expression of emotional reactions e.g.
Excitement,
Pleasure,
Rage,
Fear,
Motivation,
Olfaction and
Autonomic responses.
MIDBRAIN
B. MID BRAIN
Midbrain is located between diencephalon of
the fore brain and pons of the hind brain.
On posterior part of mid brain,

Corpora quadrigemina
Four solid spherical projections are
present also called colliculus or
optic lobe (Mammalian character)
Crura cerebri
 Anterior part of
midbrain contains
two longitudinal myelinated
nerve fibres called cerebral
peduncles or crus cerebri
or Crura cerebri.
B. MID BRAIN
Cut section ( L.S.) of mid brain
Optic lobe or colliculi or

corpora quadrigemina
A canal called Cerebral
Poste
aqueduct/Aqueduct of
r
rio
rior
sylvius passes through
te
An
the midbrain.
Crura cerebri or crus cerebri or

cerebral peduncle
B. MID BRAIN
Cut section ( T.S.) of mid brain
POSTERIOR
Optic lobe or colliculi or
corpora quadrigemina
Cerebral aqueduct
/Aqueduct of sylvius
Crura cerebri or crus

ANTERIOR
cerebri or cerebral peduncle
HINDBRAIN
Cerebellum
Pons
Medulla Oblongata
C. HIND BRAIN - (i) PONS
1. PONS VAROLII
 Pons consists of fibre
tracts that interconnect
different regions of the
brain
 Function :- pneumotaxic
centre
(It regulates breathing
mechanism)
C. HIND BRAIN - (ii) CEREBELLUM
2. CEREBELLUM
It is made up of three lobes.

2 LATERAL LOBES
1 vermis
cerebellum
White matter
(Arbor vitae)
Cerebellar cortex
(Gray matter)
Longitudinal section of cerebellum

• Cerebellum receives impulses from different voluntary

muscles and joints and then coordinate accordingly.
• Cerebellum maintains the body balance / equilibrium

and body posture.
• It is related with fine and skillful voluntary movement.

• Persons who take alcohol in excess, their cerebellum
gets affected, as a result of which they could not
maintain their balance and their walking gets disturbed.
C. HIND BRAIN – (iii)MEDULLA OBLONGATA
3.MEDULLA OBLONGATA Tubular and cylindrical in

shape
Medulla of the brain is connected
to the spinal cord.
The medulla contains centers
which control respiration,
cardiovascular reflexes
and gastric secretions.
It is also concerned with
cranial reflex action
like
sneezing reflex,
salivation reflex,
coughing reflex,
Medulla swallowing reflex,
oblongata
vomiting reflex,
yawning reflex.
SPINAL CORD
Foramen of magnum
Spinal cord
N
E Piamater
U
R Arachnoid layer
O Duramater
C Subarachnoid space
O
E Subdural space
L Epidural space
Conus medullaris (L1)

Filum terminale
(non nervous part)
Intervertebral foramen
Brain
Cervical nerves (8 pairs)
Spinal
Spinal
cord
Thoracic nerves (12 pairs) nerves
(31 pairs)
Cauda Lumbar nerves (5 pairs)

equina
Sacral nerves (5 pairs)
Coccygeal nerves (1 pair)
WHITE MATTER
GREY MATTER
INTERVERTEBRAL
FORAMEN
SPINAL NERVE
VERTEBRE
T.S. OF SPINAL CORD
Dorsal horn
Neurocoel
Interneuron Dorsal root (sensory)
Ventral Horn Lateral horn
Gray matter Dorsal root ganglia
White matter Intervertebral foramen
Ventral root Spinal nerve Ramus dorsalis

(motor) (mixed) (mixed)
Ramus ventralis Ramus Communicans

(mixed) (motor)
REFLEX ACTION
REFLEX ACTION
• Fast / Quick Stimulus Response
• Sudden
• Automatic / Spontaneous
• Involuntary
• Unplanned sequence of events
• Have no adverse effects

REFLEX ACTION
At least / Minimum Two neurons are required for the
completion of any reflex action.
Sensory / Afferent Motor / Efferent

Integration / Synapse
Stimulus Response
Direct Indirect
MONOSYNAPTIC R.A. POLYSYNAPTIC R.A.
Interneurons are not Interneurons are
involved involved
Brain Stem Grey matter of

(Midbrain, Pons, Medulla) Spinal Cord
CRANIAL R.A. SPINAL R.A.
REFLEX ACTION
REFLEX ARC :- The pathway of completion of any reflex action.
SENSORY /
STIMULUS RECEPTOR AFFERENT
NERVES
CNS
MOTOR /
RESPONSE EFFECTOR EFFERENT
NERVES
TYPES OF REFLEX ACTION
1. On the basis of site
a. Cranial reflex action b. Spinal reflex action
These actions are

These actions are
completed by brain.
completed by spinal cord.
No urgency is required
Urgency is required for
for these actions.
these actions.
These are slow actions.
These are very fast
actions.
e.g. Watering of mouth to
e.g. Withdrawal reflex.
see good food.
2. On the basis of previous experience
a. Conditioned reflex
Previous experience is required to

complete these actions
e.g. swimming, cycling, dancing, singing
These actions were studied first by

Evan Pavlov on dog.
Initially these actions are voluntary at

the time of learning and after perfection
these become involuntary.
EVON PAVLOV’s EXPERIMENT

2. On the basis of previous experience
b. Unconditioned reflex
These actions do not require

previous experience.
e.g. sneezing, coughing, yawning,
sexual behaviour for opposite
sex partner,
migration in birds etc.
STRETCH REFLEX
KNEE JERK REFLEX
MONOSYNAPTIC REFLEX
SPINAL REFLEX
HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• All the nerves arising from brain and spinal cord

are included in peripheral nervous system.
• Nerves arising from brain are called cranial

nerves, and nerves coming out of spinal cord are
called spinal nerves.
Cranial nerves
Category of animals No. of cranial nerves
1. Fishes(Pisces) 10 pairs
2. Amphibians 10 pairs
3. Reptiles 12 pairs
4. Aves 12 pairs
5. Mammals 12 pairs
Types of cranial nerves
Sensory Motor Mixed
I, II, VIII III, IV, VI, XI, XII V, VII, IX, X
Longest cranial nerve is Vagus nerve.
Largest cranial nerve is Trigeminal nerve.
Smallest cranial nerve is Abducens nerve.
Thinnest cranial nerve is Trochlear nerve.

ORIGIN OF CRANIAL NERVES :-
I From Olfactory epithelium

II From Retina
III-IV From midbrain
V-VII From Pons
VIII From Internal ear
IX-XII From Medulla oblongata
Name Distribution Function
I. Olfactory Enters olfactory lobe Smell
II. Optic Leads to optic lobe Sight
III. Oculomotor Muscle of Eyes Movement of eyeball

IV. Trochlear Muscle of Eyes Movement of eyeball
(Pathetic)
V. Trigeminal
(Dentist nerve) Sensory supply
a. Ophthalmic Conjunctiva, Lacrimal gland
To concerning part
b. Maxillary Mucous membrane of cheeks
c. Mandibular Lower Jaw Muscle of Mastication

VI. Abducens Muscle of Eyes Movement of eyeball
VII. Facial Face, Neck, Taste buds, Anterior 2/3 part
Salivary glands Of tongue, Facial Expression,
Saliva secretion
VIII. Auditory Internal ear Hearing & Equilibrium
IX. Glosso - Muscles & Mucous Posterior 1/3 part of

pharyngeal Membrane of Pharynx & tongue, Saliva secretion
tongue
X. Vagus Larynx, Lungs, Heart, Visceral sensations

Stomach, Intestine And movements
XI. Accessory Muscle of pharynx, Movements of

spinal larynx pharynx, larynx
XII. Hypoglossal Muscle of Tongue Shoulder & Neck.

Movement of
tongue
Spinal nerves
 In human 31 pairs of spinal - nerves
are found.
 Each spinal nerve is of mixed type and

arises from the roots of the horns of
gray matter of the spinal cord.
 In dorsal root, only afferent or sensory fibres
and in ventral root only efferent or motor
fibres are found.
 Both the roots after moving for a distance in

the spinal cord of vertebrates combine with
each other and come out from the Inter
vertebral foramen in the form of spinal nerve.
AUTONOMOUS NERVOUS SYSTEM
Definition
System which automatically regulates the

activities of involuntary smooth muscles,
cardiac muscles and glands which are not
under the control of our will is called ANS.
Significance of ANS
It plays an important role in maintaining the

constant internal environment (homeostasis).
Division of ANS
1. Sympathetic NS
2. Parasympathetic NS
Both, sympathetic and parasympathetic

Nervous systems functions antagonistic
to each other. Both helps in maintaining the
constant internal environment (homeostasis).
Effect of sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous system
Effect of sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous system
GOLDEN KEY POINTS
Hyposecretion of Dopamine
PARKINSON’s DISEASE
Progressive degeneration of neurons of Basal Nuclei
Muscle tremors, ultimately causing mask like face
HUNTINGTON’s CHOREA Deficiency of neurotransmitter GABA
Impairment of cerebellum
Atrophy of cerebral cortex

ALZHEIMER’s DISEASE
Hyposecretion of Acetylcholine
Deposition of beta-amyloid protein
Loss of memory (Dementia)
THANK YOU

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NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

• As you know, the functions of the

• Coordination is the process through which

NEURAL SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

NERVE IMPULSE INTEGRATIVE HORMONE

TARGET ORGAN TARGET ORGAN

 POINT TO POINT CONNECTION  POINT TO POINT CONNECTION

• In our body the neural system and the endocrine

• The neural system provides an organised

• The endocrine system provides chemical

• The neural system of all animals is composed of

The neural system is

The vertebrates have a

CENTRAL NEURAL SYSTEM PERIPHERAL NEURAL SYSTEM

SPINAL CRANIAL &

SOMATIC NEURAL AUTONOMIC NEURAL

CNS ORGAN RELAY IMPULSES RELAY IMPULSES

AUTONOMIC NEURAL SYSTEM (ANS)

Neuron / Nerve cell Neuroglial / Glial cells

 Structural and functional unit of neural

 Neuron is a microscopic structure.

 Neuron is composed of three major parts

(i) Cell body / Cyton / Soma / Perikaryon

Highly branched structure,

AXOPLASM Mainly neurofibrils & mitochondria +

AXOLEMMA Action potential travels through this

(1) APOLAR / NON POLAR NEURON

1. No definite dendron /axon

3. Nerve impulse radiates in

(2) UNIPOLAR NEURON

1. Single process arises from

2. Single process is always

(3) BIPOLAR NEURON 1. Two process arises

(4) MULTIPOLAR NEURON

(5) PSEUDOUNIPOLAR NEURON

CYTON 1. Nerve cell has only axon but

EXCITATORY / STIMULATORY INHIBITORY

Acetylcholine (Ach) GABA

Nor-epinephrine / Nor-adrenaline / Dopamine

(1) In CNS :- By Oligodendrocytes

BASIC CONCEPT -2 DIFRRENT TRANS - MEMBRANE PROTEINS

Ions channels or Na+- k+ Pump Voltage Gated channels

The potential difference across a resting

Factors contributing to the negativity of axonal membrane /

1. (Leak Channels)K+ >>>> (Leak Channels)Na+

2. Na+ - K+ ATPase Pump is working

3. Presence of non-diffusible negatively charged

LEAK CHANNEL Na+ -K+ Pump Na+ VGC K+ VGC

Influx of few Na+ ions causes change from

Stimulus induces the opening of a few Na+ VGCs which increases

Potential reaches from -70mV to -55mV/-60mV. This potential

As the threshold potential is reached, a large number of Na+

The potential now achieved, values to +30mV/+40mV and is

LEAK CHANNEL Na+ -K+ Pump Na+ VGC K+ VGC

+30 to +45mV Over shoot

Due to maximum Na+ ions concentration inside axon.

The time taken for restoration of resting

NOW NEURON IS PREPEARED TO

LEAK CHANNEL Na+ -K+ Pump Na+ VGC K+ VGC

* -70mV –DUE TO RAPID EFFLUX (OUT FLOW) OF NEGATIVE

INNER CURRENT DIRECTION

• Telodendria of one neuron form synapse with dendron

SYNAPSE = PRESYNAPTIC MEMBRANE + SYNAPTIC CLEFT + POSTSYNAPTIC MEMBRANE

CHEMICAL SYNAPSE ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE