Central Nervous System

1
 Objectives

At the End of this lesson, students will be able to Understand:

The
 Overview of Central Nervous System
The
 Brain Regions
The Blood Brain Barrier
The
 major Functions Of The Brain
The Cerebrospinal Fluid


Gray Matter & White Matter



Functional Brain Regions



– Cerebral Cortex
– Basal Nuclei
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
– Cerebellum
– Brainstem
Electroencephalogram (EEG)


Spinal Cord


Reflexes


Muscle Physiology


2
 The Nervous System
• The Nervous System is the master controlling and
communication system of the body, specialized to quickly
detect and respond to stimuli.
• It is composed of:
• Central Nervous System (brain, spinal cord)
– Integration
• Peripheral Nervous System (peripheral nerves and
receptors).
– Afferent Division (Sensory information IN)
– Efferent Division (Motor responses OUT)

3
 Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and
Input Output
spinal cord
to CNS from
from CNS to
periphery periphery

Peripheral nervous
system (PNS)

Afferent Efferent
division division

Stimuli in
Sensory Visceral Somatic Autonomic digestive
stimuli stimuli nervous system nervous system tract

Motor Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric nervous

neurons nervous system nervous system system

KEY

Central nervous system Smooth muscle Digestive

Skeletal
Peripheral nervous system Cardiac muscle organs only
muscles
Afferent division of Exocrine glands
PNS* Some endocrine
Efferent division of PNS glands
Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Enteric nervous system* Effector organs 4
(made up of muscle and gland tissue) Fig. 5-1, p. 136
 Central Peripheral
nervous system nervous system
(spinal cord)

Cell
Axon body Afferent neuron
terminals

Central Peripheral
Sensory
axon axon
receptor
(afferent fiber)

Interneuron

Efferent neuron*
Effector organ
(muscle or gland)
Axon
(efferent fiber) Axon
Cell
body terminals
* Efferent autonomic nerve pathways consist of a two-neuron chain between 5
the CNS and the effector organ. Fig. 5-2, p. 137
 Protection of the CNS
• Central Nervous System tissue is easily damaged, so it
must be well protected from trauma and harmful
substances
• 3 main ways it is protected:
1. Skull & Meninges
2. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
3. Blood Brain Barrier

6
 Bone & Meninges
• Bones of the skull – enclose the brain
• Vertebral Bones- enclose the spinal cord
• Meninges – three connective tissue membranes wrap
the brain and spinal cord: dura, arachnoid, pia mater.

7
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) surrounds and
cushions the spinal cord and brain
– formed by choroid plexuses in ventricles
– about 125-150mL replaced 3 times per
day
– Absorbs shock if sudden jarring
movements occur
– exchange of materials and fluids
between cells, neuroglia and interstitial
fluid
• low K+, high Na+, very few proteins
(vs. blood)
– limited exchange between CSF and
blood due to blood brain barrier

8
 Blood Brain Barrier
• The Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) is a highly selective network of specialized
capillaries that prevent many substances from entering the brain from
the blood
• layer of capillaries that have tight junctions, surrounded by astrocytes
and ependymal cells
• protects the brain from blood-borne pathogens, certain hormones, toxins
– lipid soluble, O2, CO2, alcohol, and water can cross
– glucose, amino acids, ions transported in by highly selective membrane carriers

9
 Metabolic Requirements of the CNS
• Neurons rely on a constant supply of oxygen and
glucose to produce ATP for active transport of ions and
neurotransmitters.
• Oxygen diffuses across the BBB
• Under normal circumstances glucose is the only energy
source for neurons
– Glucose is transported from the plasma into the
interstitial fluid by insulin independent membrane
transporters
– Hypoglycemia leads to confusion, unconsciousness
and death

10
 Functions Of The Brain
• Homeostasis: regulation of
internal environment
• Emotion
• Movement Control
• Sensory Perception
• Memory
• Cognition (higher thought,
awareness, judgement)

11
 CNS Circuits
• No single area of the CNS is functional on its own.
The function of each area is dependant upon the
connections that form its input and output.
• We will look at each area individually, but its
important to remember that it is only one part of
the many CONNECTIONS that makeup the entire
circuit of information flow throughout the CNS.

12
 Gray Matter & White Matter
• Gray Matter: cell bodies, synapses, dendrites, neuroglia
– nucleus: CNS gray matter
– ganglion: PNS gray matter
• White Matter: myelinated axons connecting different regions
– nerves: PNS
– white matter tracts: CNS

Gray matter

White matter

13
 Functional Brain Regions
• Functional Brain Regions are organized based on their adult
function. From the top down view, these regions are:
– Cerebral Cortex
– Basal Nuclei
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
– Cerebellum
– Brainstem
• Midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla

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 Cerebrum (the right Hypothalamus Thalamus Pineal gland
hemisphere, at the
longitudinal fissure
between it and the
left hemisphere)

Corpus callosum

Optic chiasm

Top
Midbrain
Brain
stem Pons
Medulla
Front
of
Cerebellum
brain

15
(b) Brain, sagittal view Fig. 5-7b, p. 146
 Cerebral Cortex (Cerebrum)
• The Cerebral Cortex
(cerebrum) is the largest,
outermost region of the
brain.
• Divided into 4 Lobes:
– Frontal
– Temporal
– Parietal
– Occipital
• Each Lobe can be further
divided by functional area 16
Frontal Central sulcus Parietal
lobe lobe

Occipital
lobe

Temporal
lobe 17
Fig. 5-9, p. 147
 Primary Cortex Areas
• The lobes of the cerebrum contain many functional
regions for integration
• “Primary” regions for motor and sensory integration
are responsible for simple, direct and conscious
processing of a single type of sensory stimulus or
motor command
• example: the primary visual cortex processing of lights
ON and OFF and simple patterns of light.
– Primary Motor Cortex: voluntary skeletal movement
– Primary Visual Cortex: response to light stimuli
– Primary Auditory Cortex: response to sound stimuli
– Primary Olfactory Cortex: response to smell
– Primary Somatosensory Cortex: response to touch stimuli 18
19
 Complex Cortical Association Areas
• Association Areas: regions next to or near the primary
cortictal areas that integrate multiple sensory stimuli,
motor stimuli, and/or memory and emotional stimuli.
• example: Visual Association Areas- processing of images,
faces,
– Visual Association Areas
– Auditory Association Areas
– Olfactory Association Areas
– Somatosensory Association Areas
– Pre-Motor Cortex: planning and decision making for skeletal
movement
– Pre-Frontal Cortex: emotional and social processing
– Language Areas: facial and motor movements to speak, auditory
and visual stimuli to read and express speech.
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 The Cerebral Hemispheres

Central sulcus
Frontal Lobe (retracted Parietal Lobe
to show insula)
Primary somatosensory
Primary motor cortex cortex
(precentral gyrus) (postcentral gyrus)
Somatic motor
association area Somatosensory
(premotor cortex) association area
Retractor

Occipital Lobe
Visual association area
Prefrontal cortex

Visual cortex

Insula
Temporal Lobe (retracted
Lateral sulcus to show olfactory cortex)
Auditory association area
Major anatomical landmarks on the surface of Auditory cortex
a

the left cerebral hemisphere. To expose the Olfactory cortex

insula, the lateral sulcus has been pulled open.

21
 Occipital Lobe: Primary Visual cortex
• Primary visual cortex – light, vision (“light”, shading)
– receives sensory input from the retina (light receptors in eye)
– Function: perception and processsing of light
• Visual association area – complex processing of visual information

Visual Association
Areas
Primary
Visual Cortex

22
 Temporal Lobe: Primary Auditory Cortex
• Primary auditory – sound, hearing
– receives sensory input from the ear

– Function: perception and processing of sound

• Auditory association Area – interprets sound into context

Primary Auditory Cortex

Auditory Association Area

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 Frontal Lobe: Primary Motor Cortex
• Primary motor cortex
– Function: voluntary control of skeletal muscles
– contralateral control (neurons cross over before heading down spinal cord)
• Supplementary Motor Area – movement sequences
• Pre-motor cortex – learned, planned movement

Supplementary Motor Area Primary Motor Cortex

Pre-motor Cortex

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 Parietal Lobe: Primary Somatosensory Cortex
• Primary somatosensory cortex – body sensations
– Receives impulses involved in touch, pain, pressure, stretch from contralateral side of
the body (axons cross in spinal cord before traveling up)
– Function: processing and perception of body sensations, proprioceptive input from
skin, joints, muscles
• Somatosensory association: complex processing of body sensations stimuli
– perception of complex patterns such as texture and shape of something you are
holding
Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Somatosensory
Association
Area

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 Front

Left hemisphere Right hemisphere

Frontal lobe

Primary motor cortex

of left hemisphere

Somatosensory cortex Central sulcus

of left hemisphere

Parietal lobe

Back Occipital
(a) Top view of brain lobe 26
Fig. 5-11a, p. 149
 Motor and Sensory Homunculus
• The motor and somatosensory cortices in the pre and post-central gyri are
anatomically mapped for regions of the body.
• Representation of the map looks like a “human” in the brain
• Regions that are more sensitive, or have more input/output are over-represented
on this internal brain map

27
 (a) Top view of brain

(b) Sensory homunculus Top

Left
hemisphere

Cross-sectional view

Temporal lobe

28
Fig. 5-11b, p. 149
 Top
(c) Motor homunculus

Left
hemisphere

Cross-sectional view

Temporal lobe

29
Fig. 5-11c, p. 149
 Frontal Lobe: Prefrontal Cortex
• Prefrontal cortex – social and emotional planning and integration
• involved with intellect, reasoning, judgment, concern for others,
personality traits, and management of emotions
– Develops later in life and is impacted by social environment
– Linked to emotions, via The Limbic System

Prefrontal Cortex

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 Language Areas
• Language areas – speech production and understanding
• surrounds lateral sulcus in the LEFT hemisphere only
– Broca’s area (Left frontal lobe) – motor and pre-motor association,
controls muscles involved in speech production
– Wernicke’s area (Left temporal lobe) – auditory and visual association
area involved in speech processing, language comprehension

31

Language Processing
Wernicke’s area Angular gyrus of
(plans content
of
parietal-temporal-occipital
association cortex
spoken words) (integrates sensory input)

Primary motor cortex

(commands facial and
tongue muscles
to speak words)
4 2
3

Broca’s area 1

(programs sound
b

pattern of speech)
1
a

Primary visual
cortex
(perceives sight)

Primary auditory cortex

(perceives sound)

Hear
words See
words

32
Fig. 5-12, p. 152
 Areas of Cerebral Cortex

Primary motor cortex

Supplementary motor area (voluntary movement) Somatosensory cortex
(on inner surface—not visible; (somesthetic sensation
programming of complex movements) Central
and proprioception)
sulcus
Posterior parietal cortex
Premotor cortex (coordination
(integration of somatosensory
of complex movements)
and visual input;
important for complex
Prefrontal association cortex movements)
(planning for voluntary Wernicke’s area
activity; decision making; (speech understanding)
personality traits)
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
Parietal-temporal-occipital
Broca’s area association cortex
(speech formation) (integration of all
sensory input; important
Primary auditory cortex in language)
surrounded by higher-order
auditory cortex (hearing) Occipital lobe
Primary visual cortex
Limbic association cortex surrounded by higher-
(mostly on inner and bottom order visual cortex (sight)
surface of temporal lobe;
motivation and emotion; memory)
Temporal lobe

33
Fig. 5-10, p. 148
 Basal Nuclei
• Basal Nuclei - integration and fine tuning of motor, sensory and
emotional input/output
• gray matter deep in the cerebrum
– Adjust stopping, starting and intensity of movements after receiving
input from cerebral motor cortex
– Sensory and motor processing
– Emotional processing in the Amygdala
• Affected in Parkinson’s Disease

34
 Cerebellum
• Cerebellum: balance, movement planning and movement execution
• highly folded, large region beneath the occipital lobe
• receives visual, somatic, cortical input
• Function: subconscious control of motor coordination

35
 Cerebellum
Motor cortex
Sends intended muscle
Movement to cerebellum

Adjustments made by
Cerebellum sent back to Cerebellum
Motor cortex Coordinate motor intent
with sensory input

Sensory input from

proprioceptors,
visual and equilibrium pathways

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 Thalamus
• Thalamus – sensory relay station
• Function: filter, process, relay sensory information to cortex
regions, i.e. screens sensory impulses and decides if it should
be passed onto the cortex and where it should be sent

Thalamus

37
 Hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus – homeostasis
• Function: links the endocrine system, autonomic
systems to directly regulate internal body environment

Hypothalamus

38
 Hypothalamus Functions
• Autonomic control center – controls ANS centers in the brain
stem and spinal cord
• Emotions –basic primitive drives such as fear, anger, pleasure
• Regulates body temperature – thermostat, initiates cooling or
heating mechanisms
• Sleep-wake cycles
• Hunger – responds to changes in levels of nutrients and hormones
• Water balance and thirst- detects concentrations of body fluids,
triggers thirst centers
• Secretes hormones – controls the release of hormones from the
pituitary

39
 Limbic System
• Limbic areas – emotional response
and processing
• A circuit of regions in Limbic
Association Cortex, Basal Nuclei
(Amygdala), Thalamus,
Hypothalamus
• Motivation, basic emotion, social,
sexual behavioral patterns, basic
survival instinctual behaviors
– example: stimulate Amygdala- fear
sensations

40
Frontal lobe

Part of limbic
association
cortex

Thalamus

Hippocampus

Temporal lobe

Amygdala

Hypothalamus

Olfactory bulb

41
Fig. 5-16, p. 157
 Brainstem
• Brainstem: 3 regions that link spinal cord to higher brain
regions
– Midbrain
– Pons
– Medulla

Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata

42
 Reticular Formation
• Reticular Activating System (RAS): interconnect regions
of the brainstem that receive and integrate sensory input
• Function: filter sensory input, attention, arousal of
cerebral cortex, some control of sleep/wake states

Reticular Formation

43
 Reticular
activating
system

Cerebral
cortex

Cerebellum

Visual
impulses
Reticular
Brain Auditory impulses
formation
stem Spinal cord
Ascending Descending motor
44
sensory tracts tracts Fig. 5-21, p. 171
 Midbrain
• Midbrain – superior portion of the brain stem that
contains:
– Corpora quadrigemina
• Superior colliculi - visual reflexes
• Inferior colliculi - auditory reflexes

Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata

45
 Pons
• Pons – bulging region between midbrain and medulla,
anterior to cerebellum
– Pneumotaxic respiratory center – works with
medulla to maintain rhythmic breathing

Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata

46
 Medulla Oblongata
• Medulla Oblongata – base of brain stem, blends inferiorly with the spinal cord
– Pyramids – contains motor tracts that cross over (decussation) before they
continue down the spinal cord
– Olives – relay information to the cerebrum & cerebellum
• Autonomic Nuclei
– Cardiovascular center – adjusts heart rate and blood pressure
– Respiratory center – controls rate and depth of breathing, works with pons for
rhythm
– Vomiting, swallowing, coughing, sneezing, hiccups

Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata

47
 Cerebral cortex

Cerebral
Cerebral
cortex
cortex
Basal nuclei
(lateral to Basal nuclei
thalamus)
Thalamus
Thalamus
(medial)

Hypothalamus

Cerebellum
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum

Midbrain Brain stem

Brain stem Pons

Spinal cord
Medulla

48
Table 5-2a, p. 144
 Cerebral cortex

Basal nuclei

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Cerebellum

Brain stem

49
Table 5-2b, p. 145
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)
An electroencephalogram is a record
of postsynaptic activity in cortical neurons.
Extracellular current flow arising from electrical
activity within the cerebral cortex can be detected by
placing recording electrodes on the scalp to produce a
graphic record known as an electroencephalogram,
or EEG.
These “brain waves” for the most part are not due to
action potentials but instead represent the momentary
collective postsynaptic potential activity in the cell
bodies and dendrites located in the cortical layers
under the recording electrode. 50
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)…(Cont’d)

 Electrical activity can always be recorded from the

living brain, even during sleep and unconscious
states.
 The waveforms vary, depending on the degree of
activity in the cerebral cortex.
 Often the waveforms appear irregular, but
sometimes distinct patterns in the wave’s amplitude
and frequency can be observed.

51
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)…(Cont’d)

Replacement of an alpha rhythm on an EEG with a beta rhythm when the eyes are
opened.
52
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)…(Cont’d)

The EEG has three major uses:

1.The EEG is often used as a clinical tool in the diagnosis of
cerebral dysfunction.
Diseased or damaged cortical tissue often gives rise to altered
EEG patterns.
One of the most common neurologic diseases accompanied by
a distinctively abnormal EEG is epilepsy.

Epileptic seizures occur when a large collection of neurons

undergo abnormal, synchronous action potentials that produce
involuntary spasms and alterations in behavior.

53
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)…(Cont’d)

2. The EEG is also used in the legal determination of brain death.

Even though a person may have stopped breathing and the heart
may have stopped pumping blood, it is often possible to restore and
maintain respiratory and circulatory activity if resuscitative measures
are instituted soon enough.

The brain is susceptible to O2 deprivation, irreversible brain damage

may occur before lung and heart function can be reestablished,
resulting in the paradoxical situation of a dead brain in a living body.

54
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)…(Cont’d)

 The determination of whether a comatose patient being continued by

artificial respiration and other supportive measures is alive or dead
has important medical, legal, and social implications.
 The need for viable organs for modern transplant surgery has made
the timeliness of such life/death determinations of utmost
importance.
 Physicians, lawyers, and the American public in general have
accepted the notion of brain death that is,
 a brain that is not functioning, with no possibility of
recovery—as the determinant of death under such
circumstances.

55
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)…(Cont’d)

 Brain-dead people make good organ donors because the organs

are still being supplied with circulating blood and thus are in
better shape than those obtained from a person whose heart has
stopped beating.

 The most widely accepted indication of brain death is

electrocerebral silence—an essentially flat EEG.

 This must be coupled with other criteria, such as absence of eye

reflexes, to guard against a false terminal diagnosis in individuals
with a flat EEG.

56
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)…(Cont’d)
3. EEG is also used to
distinguish various
stages of sleep.

EEG pattern during

paradoxical(REM
) sleep is similar to that of
an alert, awake person,
whereas the pattern during
slowwave sleep displays
distinctly different waves.

57
 Spinal Cord
• Functions:
– Pathway between the body and
the brain
– Contains ascending and
descending nerve tracts of the
CNS, relaying information to the
brain
– Initiates basic reflexes independent
of the brain

58
 Spinal Cord
• Just like the brain, there are maps of information within the
spinal cord.
• A cross-section of the spinal cord contains many functional areas
including both afferent (ascending) and efferent axons
(descending)
Dorsal surface

Ventral surface 59
Somatosensory Thalamus Primary
area of motor cortex
cerebral Cerebral
cortex cortex

Midbrain

Cerebellum

Pons
Ventral
spinocerebellar
tract Medulla
Muscle stretch
receptor Dorsal Lateral Ventral
column corticospinal corticospinal
tract tract

Spinal cord

Spinal cord Pressure

receptor
in skin
Skeletal
muscle cell 60
Spinal cord
Fig. 5-28, p. 178
 White matter Gray matter

Cell body of Interneuron

afferent neuron
Afferent fiber
Dorsal root
Cell body of
efferent neuron Dorsal root
ganglion

Efferent fiber

From receptors
To effectors
Ventral root
Spinal nerve

61
Fig. 5-26, p. 177
 Dorsal horn (cell bodies of interneurons
on which afferent neurons terminate)
Lateral horn (cell bodies of autonomic
Central efferent nerve fibers)
canal
Ventral horn (cell bodies of somatic
efferent neurons)

62
Fig. 5-29, p. 179
Dorsal columns
(conscious muscle sense
concerned with awareness
of body position; crossed
touch, pressure, vibration)
Dorsal spinocerebellar
(uncrossed; unconscious
muscle sense—important
in control of muscle tone
and posture)
Ventral spinocerebellar
(crossed; unconscious
muscle sense)
Lateral spinothalamic
(crossed; pain and
temperature)
Ventral spinothalamic
(crossed; touch)
Lateral corticospinal
(crossed; voluntary control
Dorsal surface
of skeletal muscles)
Rubrospinal (crossed;
involuntary control
of skeletal muscle
concerned with muscle
tone and posture)
Gray matter
Ventral corticospinal
(uncrossed down spinal
cord; crosses at level of
termination in spinal cord;
voluntary control
of skeletal muscles)
Vestibulospinal
Ventral surface (uncrossed; involuntary
control of muscle tone
to maintain balance
and equilibrium)
63
Fig. 5-27, p. 177
 Review of Sensory & Motor Pathways
• Sensory pathway: sensory input into the spinal cord and brain
provides information on internal and external changes in stimuli
– Afferent & Ascending

• Motor pathway: motor response based on CNS decision (voluntary

or involuntary) to change activity in skeletal muscle, organ or gland
– Efferent & Descending

• Reflex – involuntary, rapid predictable motor response to a sensory

stimulus

64
 Reflexes
• Deep Tendon Reflex:
– stimulus: brisk tap of muscle tendon activates a stretch receptor
– sensory neuron: located in dorsal root ganglion  dorsal
(posterior) horn of spinal cord
– integration: spinal cord interneuron or synapse
– motor output: motor neuron from ventral (anterior) horn
– NOTE: can be modulated by cerebral cortex and brainstem
nuclei
 Stretch Receptor (muscle spindle)

Stimulus
Spinal cord

REFLEX
ARC

Patellar Reflex KEY

Effector Sensory neuron
(stimulated)
Motor neuron
Contraction
(stimulated)

The patellar reflex is controlled by muscle spindles

in the quadriceps muscle group.
The stimulus is a reflex hammer striking the muscle
Response
tendon, stretching the spindle fibers.
This results in a sudden increase in the activity of
the sensory neurons, which synapse on spinal
motor neurons.
The response occurs upon the activation of motor
units in the quadriceps group, which produces
an immediate increase in muscle tone and a
reflexive kick.
Muscle Physiology
 Functions of Skeletal
Muscles
1) Voluntary Skeletal Movement
2) Guard body entrances and exits
3) Maintain posture / body position
4) Support soft tissues
5) Maintain body temperature
6) Store nutrients
 Muscles are Organs
• Skeletal Muscles are
organs that contain
bundles of skeletal
muscle cells, blood
vessels, connective tissue
and nerves
• Bundle Arrangement
• Connective Tissue
Layers
• Microscopic Proteins
Skeletal Muscle Organization SKELETAL MUSCLE
Surrounded by:
Epimysium

Contains:
Muscle fascicles

MUSCLE FASCICLE

Surrounded by:
Perimysium
Contains:
Muscle fibers

MUSCLE FIBER

Surrounded by:
Endomysium
Contains:
Myofibrils
 Muscle Cells have Organelles

• Like any other cell, muscle cells

Muscle Fiber (cell)
have organelles
• Organelles are specialized to Myofibril Endomysium

support contraction, high levels of Sarcoplasm

activity Mitochondrion
• sarcoplasm: cytoplasm
• sarcolemma: cell membrane
• mitochondria Sarcolemma

• sarcoplasmic reticulum: modified ER Nucleus

for calcium storage and release

• T-tubules: invagination of cell
membrane
• terminal cisternae: ends of T-tubules
• myofibrils****: specialized contractile
organelle
A Muscle Cell (Fiber)
 Myofibrils are contractile organelles
• within a single muscle cell/fiber, there are densely packed
myofibrils
• myofibrils are the contractile organelles of the muscle cell
• surrounded by sarcoplasmic reticulum (stores Ca 2+)
• units of thick and thin contractile proteins; sarcomere
arrangement

MYOFIBRIL

Surrounded by:
Sarcoplasmic
reticulum

Consists of:
Sarcomeres
(Z line to Z line)
 Sarcomere is the Contractile Unit
• When a muscle contracts, myosin pulls the actin inward toward the M-
line, causing the sarcomere to shorten
• A muscle fiber contraction at the microscopic level is “shortening” of the
muscle fiber
Sarcomere

Z line H zone I band A band Z line

Relaxed

I band A band
H zone
shorter same
shorter
width

Contracted

Thick filament Thin filament

Sarcomere shorter
Fig. 8-7, p. 264
 Sarcomere
• Sarcomere Pattern:
– Z-lines- boundaries of 1 sarcomere
– I band (light)– thin filaments only, spans 2 sarcomeres
– A band (dark)– contains thick and thin filaments overlapping
– H band – center, thick filaments only
– M–line – center line, middle proteins that link adjacent myosin

I band A band

Contains:
Thick filaments

Thin filaments

M line
Z line Z line
H band
Figure 10-6 Levels of Functional Organization in a Skeletal Muscle.

Skeletal Muscle Myofibril

Surrounded by: Surrounded by:

Epimysium Sarcoplasmic
Epimysium reticulum
Contains:
Muscle fascicles Consists of:
Sarcomeres
(Z line to Z line)

Sarcomere
I band A band

Muscle Fascicle
Contains:
Thick filaments
Surrounded by:
Perimysium Thin filaments
Perimysium
Contains:
Muscle fibers
Z line M line Titin Z line
H band

Muscle Fiber

Surrounded by:
Endomysium
Endomysium

Contains:
Myofibrils
 Muscle Proteins

NAME LOCATION FUNCTION

Myosin A band (thick filament) Contraction; hydrolyzes ATP and develops tension

Actin I band (thin filament) Contraction; activates myosin ATPase and interacts with myosin
Regulatory protein; in presence of Ca++, promotes actin-myosin
Troponin Thin filament activation
Regulatory and structural function; links filaments, controls filament
Tropomyosin Thin filament length
Regulatory and structural function; links filaments, controls filament
Alpha (α) actin Z band length
Regulatory and structural function; links filaments, controls filament
Beta (β) actin Z band length
M line (center of thick
M protein filaments) Regulatory and structural function; provides enzyme creatine kinase
C protein A band (thick filaments) Possible structural role
Titin Z line (thick filament) Interconnects thin filaments in Z line

Creatine kinase M line Catalyzes the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP

Desmin Z line Interconnects thin filaments in Z line

Filamin∗ Z line Interconnects thin filaments in Z line; stabilizes membrane

Nebulin∗ Z line Determines filament length
 Sarcomere Actinin Z line Titin

a The attachment
Sarcomere of thin filaments
to the Z line
H band
Troponin Active site Nebulin Tropomyosin G actin molecules

F actin
strand
Myofibril
b The detailed structure of a thin filament

M line
Z line
Titin

c The structure of
Myosin
thick filaments M line head

Myosin tail Hinge

d A single myosin molecule detailing the structure and

movement of the myosin head after cross-bridge
binding occurs

Figure Thin and Thick Filaments

 Excitation – Contraction Coupling
• EXCITATION of the
muscle cell by the
Motor neuron
motor neuron
CAUSES contraction ACTION POTENTIAL
• Contraction of the TRAVELING

muscle is due to
individual muscle
fibers contracting,
each from
microscopic events
at the sarcomere
Muscle Fiber
 Muscles are controlled by Motor Units
• Motor Neuron: one motor neuron within a cranial or spinal nerve that
connects to a skeletal muscle
– a nerve is a bundle of neurons traveling to/from targets
• Skeletal Muscle Fiber: a single skeletal muscle cell that contracts in
response to electrical input
– one muscle is made up of many muscle fibers
• Motor Unit: one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it connects to
– one motor neuron may connect to several muscle fibers
– one muscle will have many motor neurons from a single nerve branch that control
it
 Neuromuscular Junction

A connection between a single neuron and a single

muscle fiber is called a Neuromuscular Junction
(NMJ)

Neuromuscular Junction

Neuron

Skeletal
muscle
Neuromuscular Junction Anatomy
• Neuron: nervous system cell
– Axon: branch of a neuron
– Axon Terminal: the end of the neuron that contacts
the muscle
• Synaptic cleft: the space between the neuron
and the muscle fiber
• Muscle Fiber: skeletal muscle cell
– motor end plate: the region of the muscle fiber that
the neuron connects to
– sarcolemma: muscle cell membrane
 Excitation-
Contraction Coupling
Summary
Axon terminal

Excitation Excitation Sarcolemma

T tubule Cytosol

1) NEURON Action Potential Sarcoplasmic reticulum

2) Neurotransmitter (Ach) released Calcium

ion release

3) Neurotransmitter receptors Ca2+ Ca2+

ATP

activated (AchR)
4) MUSCLE membrane is depolarized
Thick-thin
5) Ca2+ release filament interaction
Ca2+
Myosin tail
6) Ca2+ enters the sarcomere (thick filament)

Tropomyosin Cross-bridge

7) Ca binds to troponin
formation
2+ Troponin
G-actin Ca2+

8) Myosin-Actin cross-bridge
9) Myosin-Actin powerstroke
10) myosin detaches
11) myosin re-activated
(thin filament)
Ca2+
Nebulin
Active site
In a resting sarcomere, the When calcium ions enter the Cross-bridge
tropomyosin strands cover sarcomere, they bind to formation then
the active sites on the thin
filaments, preventing
troponin, which rotates and
swings the tropomyosin away
occurs, and the
contraction cycle
cross-bridge formation. from the active sites. begins.
 Sliding Filament Theory

• The Sliding Filament Theory describes the

action of myosin and actin:
– Calcium is the excitation signal, required to free the
myosin binding sites
– ATP required for Power Stroke
– new ATP also required for crossbridge release,
relaxation
• lack of ATP = no release
• upon death, no ATP available, rigor mortis (state
of constant fixed contraction) sets in
 Sliding 1 Energized ...or... No Ca2+

Filament 2b Resting

Theory present (excitation)

4a Detachment Binding
Cross- 2a
bridge
cycle

Fresh ATP available

3 Bending
...or...

No ATP (after death)

4b Rigor complex Figure Cross-bridge cycle.

 Muscle Fiber Types
• Muscle fibers differ in their methods of metabolism based on:
– Pathways they use to produce ATP; aerobic or glycolytic
– How quickly their ATPases work; speed of contraction
cycles
– levels of myoglobin; increased ability to bind to oxygen
• 3 types:
– Slow; Slow Oxidative (Type I)
– Intermediate; Fast Oxidative (Type IIa)
– Fast; Fast Glycolytic (Type IIx)
• Muscles will have different fiber composition depending on
their function: muscles that have continuous activity (ex:
postural muscles) vs. muscles that need to respond quickly
(ex: rapid eye movement)
 Types of Muscle Fibers

• Slow – oxidative (SO) muscle fibers (Type

I) slow myosin ATPase activity: endurance
aerobic metabolism
• Numerous mitochondria, small in
diameter, high myoglobin (oxygen
SO
storage) content  DARK RED FG SO
• Intermediate – Fast oxidative (FO) muscle FG
SO
FO SO
fibers (Type IIa) Fast myosin ATPase activity, SO FO
FG FO
are fast to contraction but resistant to fatigue FG FG
– intermediate levels of mitochondria, aerobic FO
SO
metabolism, low myoglobin  LIGHT RED FO SO
LM 250x
• Fast glycolytic (FG) (Type IIx) muscle
© G W Willis/Getty Images
fibers Fast myosin ATPase activity: power
and speed
– few mitochondria, high glycogen reserves,
glycolysis (lactic acid build up), reduced
myoglobin  nearly WHITE in color
 Muscle Twitch
• A single, quick stimulus
produces a single muscle fiber
activation or twitch
• A single muscle fiber twitch
has 3 phases:

Tension
1) latent period: delay between
action potential stimulus
arrival and calcium release
from SR
Stimulus
2) contraction: calcium ions bind
to troponin, crossbridges Time
formed between myosin and (msec)
Latent Contraction Relaxation
actin phase phase
phase
3) relaxation: calcium levels
decrease as calcium pumped
back into SR and crossbridges
detach
 Latent Contraction Relaxation
period time time

Muscle Muscle
twitch
Contraction

Tension
Timing Contractile
response
• After excitation, the
A few
duration of the muscle msec
contraction (15-50 msec)
30- 100 msec
and muscle relaxation
(additional 15-50msec) is
very long compared to Membrane potential (mV) +30
the duration of the action Action
0 potential
potential (1-2 msec)

–90
1-2 msec
50 100
Stimulation Time (msec)
 Muscle Tension
• A whole muscle is made up of many muscle fibers
• Sarcomere shortening in muscle fibers within the whole muscle
leads to overall build up of tension in the whole muscle

Muscle fiber
contraction

leads to

Tension
production
 How do you get STRONGER
contractions in a muscle?

1) Increase the tension (strength) of a single muscle fiber

1) optimum length (stretch)
2) maximum calcium level (stimulation)
2) Activate more muscle fibers in the whole muscle
1) maximum number muscle fibers active (recruitment)
2) more muscle fibers added to muscle (increased size)
 Calcium Levels
• The level of calcium in a muscle is
determined by release (increase)
and balanced by re-uptake
(decrease) of calcium inside the
muscle
• electrical stimulation  calcium
released from SR
• time to relax  calcium
pumped back into SR
• Remember: calcium binds to
troponin to release tropomyosin
from actin binding sites, so this is
also about crossbridge formation
 Larger Muscles are Stronger
• The size of muscle can increase strength by:
– Increased number of muscle fibers per
motor unit
• determined by muscle development
• more fibers per motor neuron means the
same amount of stimulation will give a
stronger response
– Increased size of individual muscle fibers
• determined by training: fibers produce more
myofilaments in response to demands placed
on them (ex: athletic training)
• more myofilaments means a stronger
response to the same stimulus
 Isotonic & Isometric Contraction
• The load that a muscle is trying to move is heavy and
creates resistance.
• The force that the muscle applies creates tension, and
must be greater than the resistance in order to move the
load.
– isotonic contraction: moves the load with equal- steady force, load moves
– isometric: changing force, but load does not move

isometric contraction:
•tension<resistance
•no movement

isotonic contraction:
•tension>resistance
•load is moved
 Assignment
1. Write the Normal frequency of Alpha rhythm in EEG
2. Write the Normal frequency of Beta rhythm in EEG
3. Write the Normal frequency of Delta rhythm in EEG
4. Write the Normal frequency of Theta rhythm in EEG

5. Write the Normal function of all major hormones and

also mention its specific gland.10%
or
You can arrange for make-up class!!

95
THANK YOU !!!