SPS113

CHAPTER 2
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Outline
1. Nervous system-overview
2. Nervous system division
3. Nervous tissue
4. Central nervous system
1. Brain
2. Spinal cord
5. Peripheral nervous system
1. Cranial nerves
2. Spinal nerves
6. Somatic NS
7. Autonomic NS
8. Reflex arch
NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Master controlling and communicating system of the body

• Works together with endocrine system to maintain homeostasis
• Nervous system - quick response to stimuli
• Endocrine system - slower but long lasting effects

• Functions:
• 1. Monitor sensory input (information) from environment
• 2. Integrate the information
• 3. Response by activates the effector organ
The Human Nervous System

Blue is PNS Red is CNS

 Nervous System
Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System
(CNS) (PNS)

• Brain nerves (neurons) outside the CNS

 Sensory portion
• Spinal cord
- Afferent division
- Transmission of neuron impulses from sense
organ (receptor) to CNS
 Motor portion
- Efferent division
- Transmission of neuron impulses away from CNS
to sense organ (effector)
- Somatic motor – innervates skeletal muscle
(voluntary)
- Autonomic motor – innervates involuntary
effector organ e.g., cardiac muscle,
glands(involuntary)
DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Structural
• Divided into CNS (brain and spinal cord) and PNS (nerves and ganglia)
•
• Nervous System Division
1. Central Nervous System
2. Peripheral Nervous System
• Functional
• PNS subdivided into sensory division and motor division
• Sensory (afferent) division – conveys impulses to CNS
• Motor (efferent) division – conveys impulses from CNS
• Motor division includes:
• a. Somatic (voluntary) division - innervates skeletal muscles
• b. Autonomic (involuntary) division - innervates smooth/cardiac muscle and glands
DIVISION OF NERVOU SYSTEM
NS organization
NERVOUS TISSUE

• Made up of 2 principal types of cells:

• 1. Neurons (nerves cells) - transmit electrical signals
• 2. Neuroglia or glial cells (supporting cells) - support, protect and nourish the
neurons

• CNS neuroglia - astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells

• PNS neuroglia - schwann cells and satellite cells
Neuron
Neurons
Three (3) parts of neuron (nerve cell); cell body, dendrites and axon.

1. Dendrites
• Receive information from other neurons
• Dendrites of motor neuron are short but many
• Dendrites of sensory neuron are long

2. Cell body
• Located in CNS
• Receiving surface
• Containing nucleus

• 3. Axon (Nerve fibers)

• Conduct impulse away from cell body
• Short/long nerve fiber
• Long fibers processes outside CNS covered by white myelin sheath formed by Schwann cells and
neurilemma sheath
• Most large fiber are myelinated, myelin increases the rate of nerve impulse transmission.
• Gap in between form the nodes of Ranvier, nerve cell conduction
• Synapse is a junction at axon ends to mediate information transfer from one neuron to another
Impulse flow
 Classification Of Neurons
1.Structural Classification

Unipolar Sensory neuron

Found in PNS

Bipolar Rare neurons

Found in special sense organ (eye, inner ear, olfactory
mucosa)

Multipolar Motor neuron & association neuron

Found in CNS
Most common neuron type in humans
 Classification Of Neurons
2.Functional Classification

Sensory Conduct impulse from receptor to CNS

Neuron Long peripheral process
(Afferent) Unipolar in structure
Cell body located in PNS
Motor Conduct impulse from CNS to effector organ (muscle/gland)
Neuron Short dendrite, long axon
(Efferent) Multipolar in structure
Cell body in CNS
Interneuron Conduct impulse within CNS
(Associatio Short dendrite, axon long/short
n Neuron) Multipolar
Found in CNS
Functional classification
Properties of Neuron

1. Excitability (Irritable) - ability to respond

to stimuli

2. Conductivity - ability to transmit signal

When neuron is stimulated, an electrical

impulse is generated and conducted along
the length of its axon. This response, called
action potential (nerves impluse).
FUNCTION OF NEUROGLIA
Neuroglia
Structure Of Nervous Tissue
DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
Central Nervous
System

• The CNS refers to the brain and

spinal cord.
• Serve as the main "processing
center" for the entire nervous
system, and control all the workings
of the body.
• The central nervous system does not
include the peripheral nerves in the
arms, legs, muscles, and organs.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ( BRAIN)

• The Brain
• 4 divisions:
• 1. Cerebrum (Cerebral Hemispheres)

• 2. Diencephalon
• a. Thalamus
• b. Hypothalamus
• c. Epithalamus

• 3. Brainstem
• a. Midbrain
• b. Pons
• c. Medulla oblongata

• 4. Cerebellum
Cerebrum / Cerebral Hemispheres
• ANATOMY
• Consists of 2 hemispheres; right and left because longitudinal fissure partially separates the hemispheres
• Cerebral hemispheres exhibit gyri /gyrus (elevated ridges of tissue), sulci /sulcus (shallow grooves) and
fissures (deep grooves)
• Involved in logical reasoning, moral conduct, emotional responses, sensory interpretations, and the initial of
voluntary muscle activity
• Surface of cerebrum is grey matter called the cerebral cortex
• Divided into 5 lobes:
• 1. Parietal lobe
• 2. Frontal lobe
• 3. Temporal lobe
• 4. Occipital lobe
• 5. Insula - buried deep within the lateral sulcus and forms
part of its floor

• Functional areas of the cerebral cortex include:

1. Sensory areas – concerned with conscious awareness of sensation
2. Motor areas – control precise or skilled voluntary movements
3. Association areas – intellect, cognition, reasoning, judgment etc
BRAIN (CEREBRUM)
Frontal storage,concentration,elabora
tion,judging,inhibition,person
Cerebrum : The Lobes
ality,emotional,language
Parietal Processing sensory input,
sensory discrimination, body
orientation, somatic area,
awareness
Occipital Visual interpretation
Temporal Auditory (hearing), olfactory
(smell),receptive speech,
memory/info,expressed
behavior
Insula Viseral sensory area (upset
stomach, full bladder),
balance
 CEREBRUM: Ventricles
• Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
4 ventricles:
• Lateral ventricles (right and left) - cerebral
hemispheres
• Third ventricle - diencephalon
• Fourth ventricle - brainstem (pons and medulla
oblongata) connects with the central canal of the spinal
cord.
Diencephalon

ANATOMY
• Located deep to the cerebrum
• Connects the midbrain with the cerebral hemispheres
• Composed of thalamus, hypothalamus and epithalamus
1. Thalamus - relay station for sensory impulses passing to the sensory cortex
for interpretation
2. Hypothalamus - autonomic control center, maintains water balance and
regulates thirst, eating behaviour, gastrointestinal activity, body temperature
and the activity of the anterior pituitary glands
3. Epithalamus - includes the pineal gland which secretes the melatonin (helps
regulate the sleep-wake cycle)
 Diencephalon
Consist of 3 parts :
1. Thalamus: sensory relay
station
2. Hypothalamus :
homeostatic regulation
(autonomic control center)
3. Epithalamus: regulate light
and seasonal change
Functions : Hypothalamus
1. Autonomic control center : Integration within the ANS (BP, HR & respiratory
rate)
2. Center for emotional responses : Behavioral responses associated with
emotion- perception of pleasure, fear, rage/extremely angry & sex drive/sexual
responses
3. Body temperature regulation: sweating & shivering
4. Regulation of food intake (feeling of hunger, eating behavior & gastrointestinal
activity)
5. Regulation of water/ electrolyte balance & thirst
6. Regulation of sleep-wake cycle/patterns: suprachiasmatic nucleus
(biological clock)
7. Control of endocrine system (anterior pituitary gland)
Brainstem
• Relays messages between the spinal cord and the cerebrum

• 1. Midbrain
• Mainly fiber tracts
• Connects the pons and cerebellum with the cerebrum

• 2. Pons
• bridge between the medulla oblongata and the midbrain
• Has fiber tracts and nuclei involved in respiration

• 3. Medulla oblongata
• Fibers of motor tracts from the motor cerebral cortex cross over (decussate) in the
medulla oblongata before entering the spinal cord
• Contains vital cardiac, vasomotor, and respiratory center (breathing, HR, BP, etc,)
• Regulates vomiting, sneezing, coughing, and swallowing
BRAIN STEM
Cerebellum

• Located behind the pons (brain posterior to the 4th ventricle)

• Large and cauliflower-like
• Mainly a coordination centre for muscular movement, involved with balance,
precision, timing, and body position
Protection of the Brain

• Protected by:
• 1. Bone
• 2. Meninges
• 3. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• 4. Blood-brains barrier
 PROTECTION OF THE BRAIN

1.Bones Skull
2. Meninges Brain is covering by 3 layer protective membranes (connective
tissues)
• Dura mater
• Arachnoid mater
• Pia mater
Between the arachnoid and pia mater is the subarachnoid
space, which contains cerebrospinal fluid
3. Cerebrospinal • Formed by the choroid plexus from blood plasma, circulates
fluid (CSF) through the ventricle & into the subarachnoid space.
• Supports and watery cushions the brain and spinal cord and
helps to nourish them.
4. Blood-brains Reflects the relative impermeability (protection) of the
barrier (BBB) epithelium of the capillaries of the brain. It allows water,
CSF
The Spinal Cord
Gross Anatomy and Protection
Anatomy
• Two-way impulse conduction pathway and a reflex center
• Extends from the foramen magnum to the end of the 1st lumbar vertebra
• 31 pairs of spinal nerve roots issue from the cord
• The cord is enlarged in the cervical and lumbar regions, where spinal nerves serving the limbs
arise
• 1. Cervical enlargement - innervate the upper limbs
• 2. Lumbar enlargement - innervate the lower limbs
• Protected by bone (vertebral column), meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid

Function
• Conducting impulse between brain and peripheral nerves
• Connecting link between the brain and most of the body
• Controls many reflex actions
SPINAL CORD: GROSS ANATOMY
Cross-sectional Anatomy
• ‘H’ shaped the gray matter surrounded by white matter
• Gray matter consist of cell bodies, dendrites, axon, neuroganglia
• White matter consist of nerves with its pathway
• Axons of motor neurons emerge in common from the cord via ventral roots
• Axons of sensory neurons enter the posterior aspect of the cord and form the dorsal roots
• The ventral and dorsal roots combine to form the spinal
• nerves
• All tracts are pair and decussate

Conduction pathway comprised of:

• 1. Ascending tract =Ascending tract are made up of sensory fibers that carry impulse up the
spinal cord to the brain

• 2. Descending tract = Descending tract of motor fibers transmit impulse from the brain down
the spinal cord to the efferent neurons
Cross-sectional Anatomy
Ascending vs Descending tract
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Consists of sensory receptors, nerves conducting impulses to and from the

CNS, their associated ganglia, and motor endings

• Nerves extend between skin, muscles, visceral organs and glands to and from
the CNS

• Prominent nerves involve are cranial and spinal nerves

• Divided into somatic and autonomic nervous system

Important!!!!
Nerves
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
PNS DIVISION

SENSORY MOTOR

SOMATIC NS AUTONOMIC NS
RECEPTORS

SYMPHATHETIC PARASYMPHATETIC
Nerves and Associated Ganglia

• A nerve is a bundle of neuron fibers in the PNS wrapped in connective

tissue covering
• Each fiber is enclosed by an endonerium, fascicle of fibers is wrapped by
perinerium, and the whole nerve is bundled by the epinerium
• Ganglia are collections of neuron cell bodies associated with nerves in the
PNS; e.g.: the dorsal root (sensory) ganglia and autonomic (motor) ganglia
Nerve fiber
 PNS-
organ

Cranial Spinal
nerves nerves
PNS organs
Cranial Nerves
• 12 pairs
• Originate from the brains
• Innervate the head and neck
• Only the vagus nerves (X) extend into the thoracic and abdominal cavities
• Cranial nerves are numbered from anterior to posterior in order of emergence
from the brain
• Their names reflect structures serves or function or both; e.g.: olfactory
nerves (I) - sensory; carries impulses for the sense of smell, optic nerves (II) -
sensory; carries impulses for vision. Facial nerves (VII) - activates the muscles
of facial expression and the lacrimal and salivary glands; carries sensory
impulses from the taste buds of anterior tongue.
CRANIAL NERVE
Spinal Nerves
• Consists of nerves extend between skin, muscles, visceral organs and glands
• Divided to somatic and autonomic system
• There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves:
• 1. 8 cervical spinal nerve(C1 - C8)
• 2. 12 thoracic (T1 - T12)
• 3. 5 lumbar (L1 - L5)
• 4. 5 sacral (S1 - S5)
• 5. 1 coccygeal (C0)
SPINAL NERVE
 Sensory division-Sensory Receptors
Functions to respond to environmental changes
(stimuli)

Types 1.Simple (general) receptors : for pain, touch,

pressure, & temperature found in the skin,
skeletal muscles, tendons, & visceral
organs(internal organs)

2. Complex receptors (sense organs) : serve

the special senses (vision, hearing, equilibrium,
smell, & taste)
 Peripheral Nervous System
• The peripheral nervous system is divided into the
1. somatic nervous system (connect to the SKELETAL MUSCLE only!!!!)
2. autonomic nervous system (connect to the organ e.g smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle and other organ

• Function : to promote homeostasis by regulating visceral activities,

especially activities of cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and gland
Somatic Nervous System

• Composed of:
• a. Somatic afferent (sensory) division
• -Somatic afferent division conveys sensory information from the skin, skeletal
muscles, tendons, joints, eyes, tongue, nose and ears to the spinal cord and
brain via the spinal and some cranial nerves
• b. Somatic efferent (motor) division
- Somatic efferent division conduct impulse from the CNS to skeletal muscle
Autonomic Nervous System

• Divided into:
• a. Sympathetic division
• b. Parasympathetic division
• The two divisions normally exert antagonistic effects on many of the same
targets organs.
• Main function of the ANS is to promote homeostasis by regulating visceral
activities, especially activities of cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and gland
• Generally, the sympathetic division prepares the body for stressful situation,
and the parasympathetic division is active when the body is at rest
Autonomic nervous system
• Parasympathetic division
•  The ‘house-keeping’ system and is in control most of the time
•  Maintains homeostasis by seeing that normal digestion and elimination occur and that
body energy is conserved
•  Parasympathetic effects include pupillary constriction, glandular secretion, increased
digestive tract mobility, and smooth muscle activity leading to elimination of urine and feces

• Sympathetic division
•  The ‘fight-or-flight’ system, which prepares the body to cope with some threat or under
conditions of emergency
•  Sympathetic responses include dilated pupils, increased heart and respiratory rates,
increased blood pressure, dilation of the bronchioles of the lungs, increased blood glucose
levels, and sweating
•  During exercise, sympathetic vasoconstriction shunts blood from skin and digestive viscera
to the heart, brain, and skeletal muscles
Sympathetic vs parasympathetic
Sympathetic NS
What “fight and flight system”
When Activate when in emergency condition/
exercise
How the effects • Increased heart rate,
• Increased breathing rate
• Increased BP
• Increased blood flow
• Increased body temperature
• Decreased digestion
• Decreased excretion
Parasympathetic NS
“rest and digest”
Housekeeping system
Activate when at calm and rest
• Decreased heart rate,
• Decreased breathing rate
• Decreased BP
• Decreased blood flow
• Decreased body temperature
• Increased digestion
• Increased excretion
The Reflex Arc

• A reflex is a rapid, involuntary motor response to a stimulus

• Has 5 elements: receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron
and effector
• Reflex arc is conduction pathway for a reflex action involves sensory cell,
effector cell, one or more nerve cells

• Reflexes are divided into:

• 1. Somatic reflex (effectors are the muscles)
• 2. Visceral reflex (effectors are the smooth and cardiac muscles)
5 elements of reflex arch
Spinal Reflexes
Reference
• https://content.byui.edu/file/a236934c-3c60-4fe9-90aa-
d343b3e3a640/1/module6/readings/intro_nerve_system.html
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ap1x94x1/chapter/the-spinal-cord/
• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263858109_An_Approach_for_Adapt
ive_Limbless_Locomotion_Using_a_CPG-
Based_Reflex_Mechanism/figures?lo=1
Let practise
• https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/56bd28a169793ea67f6b9d08/neurons
• https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5ccae955af860b001a7401c7/labeling-the-brain
• https://www.purposegames.com/game/gross-anatomy-of-the-spinal-cord-quiz
• https://www.purposegames.com/game/spinal-cord-cross-section-labeling
• https://wps.prenhall.com/chet_justice_commdisorders_3/241/61747/15807388
.cw/index.html