Unit III

Nervous System and Electromyography

Content
 Introduction to Nervous System-Anatomy
 The anatomy of the nervous system & The Autonomic nervous System

 10-20 electrode placement system for EEG measurement

 EEG machine

 Evoked potentials and Types & significance of EEG signals

 EEG Amplifiers& filters

 Analysis of diseases using EEG

 Electromyography (EMG)
 Muscle contraction mechanism,

 Myoelectric voltages,

 EMG Machine.
What is nervous system
 The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry
and transmit messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to
various parts of the body.
The Nervous system has three major functions:

 Sensory – monitors internal & external environment through presence

of receptors (carry messages from body to brain (pain, pressure,
temperature))

 Integration – interpretation of sensory information (information

processing); complex (higher order) functions

 Motor – response to information processed through stimulation of

effectors(– carry messages from brain to body to respond )

 Muscle contraction

 Glandular secretion
Contd…..
 Two types of neural cells in the nervous system:

 Neurons - For processing, transfer, and storage of information

 Neuroglia – For support, regulation & protection of neurons

Neuroglia
CNS neuroglia:
 Astrocytes
 Oligodendrocytes
 Microglia
 Ependymal cells

PNS neuroglia:
 Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes)
 satellite cells
Neuron

 30,000 neurons can fit on a pinhead

Disorders are numerous and often difficult to diagnose and treat
 there are different types of neurone

dendrites direction of
cell body electrical
signal

myelin
sheath

axon

nerve
endings

motor neurone sensory neurone relay neurone

sends signals to your muscles sends signals from connects neurones to
to tell them to move your sense organs other neurones

neurones communicate with each other using a mixture of electrical & chemical signals
Signal transmission at synapse Functions of neurotransmitters
– Cause muscles to contract
or relax

– Cause glands to secrete

products

– Activate or inhibit neurons

- Messages are sent across the synapses by special chemicals called

- neurotransmitters
- The use of neurotransmitters causes an electrical current
- There is enough electrical current in the brain to power a flashlight
- Neurons do NOT touch; there is a gap between them called a
synapse
 electrical impulse triggers vesicles
signals cross between neurones at the synapse
1
to move to the synapse membrane
vesicles fuse with the membrane and
2 release neurotransmitter into the
synaptic cleft
dendrites
neurotransmitter diffuses across vesicle
3
the cleft and binds to receptors myelin sheath
on the other side

synaptic cleft cell body

nucleus receptor neurotransmitter

4 Once enough receptors have

neurotransmitters bound to
them, the signal is
transmitted… axon
The point where your muscles and nervous system meet is called the

neuromuscular junction (NMJ)

Signals sent from your central nervous

system to the NMJ tell muscles to move

The synapses at the NMJ

use a neurotransmitter
called acetylcholine
Important Terms
 Synapse – junction between 2 neurons that communicates the
message from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron

 Ganglion – a cluster of neuronal cell bodies in the PNS

 Preganglionic neuron – cell body lies within the CNS

 Postganglionic fiber (axon) of the ganglionic neuron extends to the

visceral organs

 Dendrites - fibers that receive messages from other neurons

 Axons - fibers that send messages to other neurons

Apply Your Knowledge

What is the function of neurotransmitters?

ANSWER: Neurotransmitters cause muscles to contract or relax, cause
glands to secret products, activate neurons to send nerve impulses, or
inhibit neurons from sending them.
Neural Tissue Organization
Contd…….
 Gray matter
 Inner tissue with darker color
 Contains neuron cell bodies and their dendrites
 Divisions are called horns
 Central canal runs down the entire length of the spinal cord
through the center of the gray matter
 White matter
 Outer tissue
 Contains myelinated axons
 Divisions are called columns (funiculi)
 Columns contain groups of axons called nerve tracts
Brain
 A memory is not a snapshot
stored in the brain – it must
be put together from
information stored in
various parts of the brain

Brain : A mass of 100 billion neurons

located inside the skull
- Learning occurs as more and
stronger connections are made
between neurons
Organization of nervous system

Nervous System

Central Nervous Peripheral Nervous

System System

Brain Spinal Cord

Somatic Autonomic
System System

Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain

Thalamus Hypothalamus Sympathetic Parasympathetic

Division Division

Corpus
Cortex Limbic System
Callosum
 your nervous system

is divided into the central

nervous system (CNS)
which is the brain and
spinal cord

Medical Art Service, Munich /, Wellcome Images

Credit Medical Art Service, Munich /, Wellcome Images

and the
peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
which connects everything
to the brain and spinal cord
The ANS and Visceral Sensory Neurons

19
Contd….
 The central nervous system can be broken down structurally as follows:
– Spinal Cord
– Hindbrain
• Medulla (myelencephalon)
• Pons (metencephalon)
• Cerebellum
– Midbrain (mesencephalon)
– Forebrain
• Telencephalon
– Cerebral Cortex
 Frontal Lobe
 Temporal Lobe
 Parietal Lobe
 Occipital Lobe
– Subcortical Structures
 Basal Ganglia
 Hippocampus and Amygdala (parts of the Limbic System)
– Corpus Collosum
• Diencephalon
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
Central Nervous System

 Impulses may travel as fast at 268

miles/hr throughout the body from

brain to all body parts via spinal cord

Contd….

 The brainstem refers to the midbrain and portions of the hindbrain.

Specifically, the brainstem comprises:

 Midbrain (mesencephalon) - Controls both visual and auditory

reflexes

 Medulla (myelencephalon)

 Pons (metencephalon)
Spinal cord
 The spinal cord is one of the two major components of the central
nervous system:

 Like the brain, it is completely encased in bone. It resides within the

vertebral column

 Connects directly to the medulla section of the brain

 It is approximately 45 cm long in an adult

 Ascending tracts Receives sensory messages and sends them to the

brain

 Descending tracts carry motor information down from the brain to

muscles and glands

 Also acts independently from the brain called reflexes

Contd……
 Reflexes – a predictable, automatic response to stimuli

Receptor Sensory Neurons

Interneurons

Effectors Motor Neurons

 31 spinal segments:
– 8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1 through C8)
– 12 pairs of thoracic nerves (T1 through T12)
– 5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1 through L5)
– 5 pairs of sacral nerves (S1 through S5)
– 1 pair of coccygeal nerves (C0)
Hindbrain
 Oldest part of the brain

 Located between the spinal cord and the brain hemispheres

 Consists of the medulla, pons and cerebellum

 Contains many nuclei, including those that produce the

neurotransmitters for the whole brain

 Controls many involuntary, life-sustaining processes including

 Respiration

 Circulation

 Digestion
Contd….
 Medulla (myelencephalon)

Full name: Medulla Oblongata ("oblong marrow")

 Connects the spinal cord to pons
 Inferior portion of brain stem
 Controls many vital activities, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and
breathing
Contd….
 Pons (metencephalon)

Full name: Pons Varolii. Originally means 'bridge‘

Bridges the cerebrum and the cerebellum through cerebellar peduncles
Responsible to Regulates respiration
Contd….
 Cerebellum
Location
– Inferior to the occipital lobes of the cerebrum
– Posterior to the pons and medulla oblongata
Coordinates
– Complex skeletal muscle contractions that are needed for
body movements
– Fine movements, provide balance to the body
Midbrain
 Controls posture and walking
 Handles reflexes of eye movements
Forebrain
 Telencephalon
Cerebral Cortex
The cerebral cortex is composed of two hemispheres comprising four lobes: the frontal,
temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes.
 Frontal Lobe

 Motor areas for voluntary body movements

 Largest of the four lobes
 Language production
Memory and higher cognitive function
Contd….
 Temporal Lobe
 Auditory processing - interpretation
 Memory
 Understanding language
Contd….
 Parietal Lobe
 Spatial processing
 Attention
 Somatosensory – interprets sensations
Contd….
 Occipital Lobe
 Visual processing
Contd….
Contd….
Contd….
lobes
Apply Your Knowledge

Match the following:

___
H Meninges A. Carry motor information from brain
___
D Ascending tracts B. Stores memories and creates emotions
___
A Descending tracts C. Grooves on the surface of the cerebrum
___
B Cerebral cortex D. Carry sensory information to the brain
___
F Hypothalamus E. Predictable, automatic response to stimuli
___
C Sulci F. Maintains homeostasis
___
G Cerebellum G. Coordinates skeletal muscle contractions
___
E Reflexes H. Protects the brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System

 Nerves that branch off the CNS

 Peripheral nerves
– Two types:
• Cranial nerves
• Spinal nerves
Cranial Nerves
I. Olfactory nerves
– Carry smell information to the brain for interpretation

II. Optic nerves

– Carry visual information to the brain for interpretation

III. Oculomotor nerves

– Found within the muscles that move the eyeball, eyelid, and
iris
IV. Trochlear nerves
– Act in the muscles that move the eyeball.
V. Trigeminal nerves
– Carry sensory information from the surface of the eye, the
scalp, facial skin, the lining of the gums, and the palate to the
brain for interpretation
– Also found within the muscles needed for chewing
Contd…….
VI. Abducens nerves
– Act in the muscles that move the eyeball
VII. Facial nerves
– Found in the muscles of facial expression as well as in the
salivary and tear glands
– Also carry sensory information from the tongue
VIII. Vestibulocochlear nerves
– Carry hearing and equilibrium information from the inner
ear to the brain for interpretation
IX. Glossopharyngeal nerves
– Carry sensory information from the throat and tongue to the
brain for interpretation
– Also act in the muscles of the throat
X. Vagus nerves
– Carry sensory information from the thoracic and abdominal
organs to the brain for interpretation
– Also found within the muscles in the throat, stomach,
intestines, and heart
Contd…….

XI. Accessory nerves

– Found within the muscles of the throat, neck, back, and
voice box
XII. Hypoglossal nerves
– Found within the muscles of the tongue

Spinal Nerves
 Dermatome

 Ventral root

 Dorsal root
Introduction to ANS
 Regulates activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands

 Operates without conscious control

 Named autonomic because was thought to be AUTONOMUS

(working without CNS)
Comparing the ANS and Somatic NS

 Structurally then SNS includes:

 Somatic sensory neurons

 Integrating centers in the CNS (Cortex)

 Somatic motor neuron to skeletal muscles only

 Somatic- the effect of a motor neuron is always excitation

 Autonomic- the effect of a motor neuron is either excitatory or

inhibitory
Contd……….

45
Autonomic Nervous System

 Makes all routine adjustments in physiological systems.

 The ANS pathway from the CNS to the effector always involves 2
neurons synapsing in an autonomic ganglion.

 Preganglionic – cell body is in the CNS, axon extends to the

ganglion outside the CNS

 Postganglionic – cell body is in the ganglion, axon extends to the

visceral effector
Autonomic regulation & stress

 A stressful situation activates three major communication systems in the

brain that regulate bodily functions.
 The first of these systems is the voluntary nervous system, which sends
messages to muscles so that we may respond to sensory information.
 The second communication system is the autonomic nervous system. It
combines the sympathetic or emergency branch, which gets us going in
emergencies, and the parasympathetic or calming branch, which keeps
the body’s maintenance systems, such as digestion, in order and calms
the body’s responses to the emergency branch.
 The brain’s third major communication process is the neuroendocrine
system, which also maintains the body’s internal functioning.
Apply Your Knowledge

Match the following: ANSWER:

___
B Somatic nervous system A. Motor nerves
___
C Autonomic nervous system B. Governs skeletal or voluntary muscles
___
A Afferent nerves C. Governs respiratory and GI systems
___
E Efferent nerves D. Go-betweens or interpreters
___
D Interneurons E. Sensory nerves
Subdivisions of the ANS

 Sympathetic Division
 Fight-or-flight

 Parasympathetic Division
 Rest-and-digest

 These divisions are anatomically distinct

 Sympathetic Stimulates
heart beat
 tissue metabolism,
increases alertness,
prepares the body to deal with emergencies
(“fight or flight” division)
Contd…..

 Synapses of neurons are in a chain of ganglia that run alongside the

spinal cord

 Extends on both sides of the vertebral column

 Carries preganglionic fibers and cell bodies of postganglionic neurons

 Rami communicantes from the spinal nerves connect to the chain

Effects of Sympathetic Stimulation

 Widespread
• The sympathetic chain allows one preganglionic fiber to synapse with
many postganglionic neurons
 Enhanced & prolonged by the adrenal medulla
Neurotransmitters of Sympathetic Division

 Preganglionic fibers release acetylcholine (Ach) Therefore they are

called:

 Cholinergic

 Postganglionic fibers (most) release norepinephrine (NE) (=

noradrenaline)

 Adrenergic

 Adrenal medulla releases norepinephrine and epinephrine

(adrenalin)
Functions of the Sympathetic Division
 Heart: increases rate

 Lung bronchioles: dilates bronchioles

 Salivary glands: produce viscous fluid

 Stomach: decreases motility

 Pupil: dilates

 Sweat glands: produce secretions

Sympathetic Division of the ANS
Parasympathetic

 Parasympathetic division (craniosacral)

– Cell bodies reside in the brain stem (cranial nerves) or in the sacral
portion of the spinal cord

– Slows the heart rate,

– Inhibits senses,

– Prepares the body for rest and relaxation; (“rest and digest” division).

 Neurotransmitter of Parasympathetic Division

 Preganglionic fibers: Acetylcholine

 Postganglionic fibers: Acetylcholine

Effects on various organs:
 Heart: decreases rate

 Lung bronchioles: constricts bronchioles

 Salivary glands: produces watery fluid fluid

 Stomach: increases motility

 Sweat glands: reduces secretions

Parasympathetic Division of ANS

56
Combined ANS
Relationship Between the Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic Divisions
 Most organs receive dual innervation
 It is a tug of war between the two
ANS either increases excitation or inhibits the activity

– Ex1. Sympathetic fibers increase heart rate, parasympathetic

fibers decrease heart rate.

– Homeostasis comes from the balance of the two.

Ex.#2 Sympathetic fibers decreases stomach motility.

Parasympathetic fibers increase stomach motility.
All division together
Apply Your Knowledge

What is the difference between the sympathetic and

parasympathetic nervous systems?
ANSWER: The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body
for stress. It releases norepinephrine, causing an increase in
heart and respiratory rate, slows down the GI system, and
dilates pupils. The sympathetic system also controls constriction
of blood vessels.
The parasympathetic system prepares the body for resting and
digesting. It releases acetylcholine, which slows heart and
respiratory rate, constricts pupils and stimulates the GI system.
It has no effect on most blood vessels.
What is an EEG?
 EEG stands for electroencephalogram

 EEG signals are created by measuring the difference in electrical currents

across neuron membranes

 EEG is a mixture of waves at different frequencies and amplitudes.

 Electrodes attached to the body pick up these signals

 There can be a only a few electrodes or many attached to the head

 Many naturally occurring signals in the human body effect EEG signals

 Frequency Analysis helps to separate the different signals

62
EEG
Types of EEG signals
 EEG signals have been classified into 4 categories:
 Delta (0.3 to 4 Hz)

• Dreamless sleep

 Theta (4 to 8 Hz)

• Associated with thoughts which produce dreams

 Alpha (8 to 13 Hz)

• Result of unfocused thoughts

 Beta ( above 13 Hz)

• Result of interactions with environment

64
Cont….
Electrode placement

 Electrode placement can effect signals received

If two electrodes are “active”, it is called “bipolar” recording.

If one electrode is “silent”, it is called “monopolar” recording. The
reference sites: ear lobe, mastoid, nose. 66
10-20 Electrode System

F = Frontal
P = Parietal
T = Temporal
O = Occipital
C = Central
A = Auxiliary

 Although any number of electrodes can placed for EEG measurement, but 21
or 25 electrodes can be used for adequate analysis
 The grounding electrode and referencing electrode are placed at forehead
and right ear lobe respectively.
Placement of Electrodes

10-20 Electrodes Arrangement

10-10 Electrodes Arrangement

Cont….
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AN EEG MACHINE
Physiology and Input Design of EEG

Electrode Low-Pass
Preamplifier Amplifier
Input 1 Filter

High-Pass
Filter

Summer/ A/D
Averager Converter

High-Pass
Filter Processor

Electrode Low-Pass
Preamplifier Amplifier
Input 2 Filter
Cont…….
 8 – 64 identical channels
recording simultaneously
from as many different
pairs of electrodes

 Electrodes & electrode

board

 Amplifiers

 Filters

 Pen & chartdrive (screen)

16
EEG Transducer(Recording set up)

• Electro encephalography - study of electrical activities of the brain.

• Electrodes attached to different parts of the skull of a patient.

• 8 channel EEG recorder:-

 Patient cable consists of 21 electrodes

 Electrodes connected to selector in groups of 8- Montage of

electrodes

 Right ear electrode  reference electrode right brain

electrodes

 Left ear electrode  reference electrode left brain electrodes

EEG Transducer(Recording set up)

 Interference problem is reduced by differential

amplifier(preamplifiers)
 Filter bank:- consists of appropriate filters to select different types of
brain waves.
 Output can be given to 8-channel pen recorder, display unit,
computer storage memory for further processing.
 Evoked Potential:- Measure of the “disturbance” in the EEG pattern
that results from external stimuli.
 Time delay between stimulus and response can be measured in signal
processing unit.
EEG Amplifiers & Filters
Cont…….
Cont…….
EEG is characterized by: Design goal
Stage 1
1) Voltage
 Gain should be in the range of 50-80
2) frequency (is used for BF)  Common Mode Rejection Ratio
 Provides noise reduction and signal
3) spatial location (is used for BF)
centering
4) inter-hemispheric symmetries Stage 2
5) reactivity (reaction to state change)  Gain of 390
6) Character of waveform occurrence  Capacitors stabilize power supply
(random, serial, continuous)
Design Aspects
 Low signal levels require very low noise devices
 Battery powering could introduce too much signal noise unless
properly shielded.
 Two channels sufficient to measure frequency content
– Differential voltage measurements
– Fifth electrode along scalp midline to create unbiased ground

Risks
 Too much noise in system
– Will distort signal and render it useless
– Can use commercial electrodes, conductive paste
– Filters should assist in removing noise, also use shielding
techniques for battery and twisted pairs for wires
Evoked Potentials
Evoked potentials or event-related potentials (ERPs) are significant
voltage fluctuations resulting from evoked neural activity. Evoked
potential is initiated by an external or internal stimulus
• Visual
Auditory evoked Potentials
Motor Evoked Potentials
Event-Related Potentials (ERP)

• Many trials over the same

time averaged together

30
EEG Electrodes

 Disposable (gel-less, and

pre-gelled types)
 Reusable disc electrodes
(gold, silver, stainless steel or
tin)
 Cap (different numbers of
electrodes)
 saline-based electrodes
 Needle electrodes
EEG artifact
Block diagram for emg recording set up
Block diagram for emg recording set up

 Electro myography :- study and interpreting of muscle action

potential.

 Potentials measured by placing surface electrodes on the skin.

 Individual cell potential measured by means of needle electrode

 EMG appears like random noise waveform.

 Contraction of muscle fibers produce action potentials

Block diagram for emg recording set up
 Amplitude of EMG signals depends
• Type & placement

• Degree of muscular exertions

 Normal frequency of EMG signals is 60 Hz

 EMG signal amplitude ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 mV.

 Amplifier with high CMRR and input impedance

 Output can be given to oscilloscope, tape recorder or AF amplifier.

Electromyogram-emg
Problems of the Nervous System
Concussion
A temporary disturbance of the brain’s ability to function due to a
hard blow to the head
Contd…….

Paralysis
A loss of sensation and
movement of part of the
body due to an injury of
the spinal cord or brain
Contd…….
Parkinson’s Disease
The brain does not produce enough of the neurotransmitter that
transmits messages from the brain to the muscles
Symptoms: tremors, rigid muscles, shuffling walk, and loss of facial
expression

Red areas
show where
chemical is
stored
Contd…….
Alzheimer’s Disease
A gradual shrinking of the neurons in the cerebrum
Symptoms: memory loss, emotional disturbances, inability to
function on own, death
Epilepsy
Abnormal transmission of messages between the neurons in the brain
Symptoms: seizures
Contd……. Other
Disease/Disorder Description
Amyotrophic lateral Lou Gehrig’s disease
sclerosis (ALS) Degeneration of neurons in the spinal cord and brain

Bell’s palsy Weak or paralyzed facial muscles

Brain tumors and Abnormal growths

cancers Can be primary or secondary tumors
Most common – gliomas
Guillain-Barré Body’s immune system attacks the PNS
Syndrome
Headaches
Tension Episodic or chronic
Migraines With aura/without aura
Cluster Form of migraines; occurs in groups
Contd…….

Disease/Disorder Description
Multiple sclerosis Chronic disease of CNS
(MS) Myelin is destroyed
Neuralgias Disorders causing nerve pain
Sciatica Damage to sciatic nerve
Stroke Brain cells die because of an inadequate blood
flow; “brain attack”
Neurologic Testing: Diagnostic Procedures

 Lumbar puncture

 Magnetic resonance imaging

(MRI)

 Positron emission tomography

(PET) scan

 Cerebral angiography

 Computerized tomography (CT)

scan

 Electroencephalogram (EEG)

 X-ray
Different types of bio signals
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)

 Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)

 Phonocardiogram(PCG)

 Electromyogram (EMG)

 Electroretinogram(ERG)

 Electrogastrogram (EGG)

 Electrooculogram (EOG)

 Galvanic skin response (GSR)

 Magnetoencephalogram (MEG)

 Mechanomyogram (MMG)
University Model Questions:
Q1.