NERVOUS SYSTEM 3.

Axons - nerve fiber, referring to the straight alignment

CHAPTER 11
11.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Maintaining homeostasis.
2. Receiving sensory input.
3. Integrating information.
4. Controlling muscles and glands
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity.
11.2 DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Two major divisions:
1. Central nervous system (CNS) - consists of the
brain and the spinal cord.
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)- consists of all the nervous
tissue outside the CNS (nerves and ganglia)
 Sensory division or afferent (“toward”) division- from
sensory receptors in the body to the CNS
 Motor division or efferent (“away”) division- from the
CNS to effector organs,such as muscles and glands
o Somatic - voluntary (conscious) division
o Autonomic- involuntary (unconscious) division
 Sympathetic division- fight-or-flight
 Parasympathetic division- rest-and-digest
o Enteric- consists of plexuses within the wall of the
digestive tract; independent subdivision of the PNS
that is integrated with the ANS
Neurons- Cells of the nervous system
Sensory receptors - endings of neurons, or separate, specialized
cells that detect temperature, pain, touch, pressure, light, sound,
odor, and other stimuli
Nerve- bundle of many axons that connects the CNS to sensory
receptors, muscles, and glands.
 Cranial- 12 pairs
 Spinal- 31 pairs
Ganglion- collection of neuron cell bodies located outside the CNS.
Plexus- extensive network of axons and neuron cell bodies located
outside the CNS
Synapse- junction of a neuron with another cell
11.3 CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Two Cell Types
1. Neurons
- electrically excitable cells that receive stimuli and
transmit action potentials to other neurons or to effector
organs.
Neuron Structure
1. Neuron cell body – contains nucleus
 Nissl bodies- sites of protein synthesis in neurons
2. Dendrites- extensions of the cell body and are the
receiving portion of the neuron.
 Dendritic spines- small extensions where axons of
other neurons form synapses with the dendrites
and uniform diameter of most axons
 trigger zone- where action potentials are
generated; axon hillock and initial segment
 axoplasm- cytoplasm of an axon
 axolemma- plasma membrane of axon
 presynaptic terminals- store many secretory
vesicles that contain signal molecules called
neurotransmitters
 Transport Mechanism
o Anterograde- Movement away from the cell
body
o Retrograde- Movement toward the cell body
Types of Neurons
Functional Classification- direction in which action potentials
are conducted
1. Sensory neurons (afferent neurons) - conduct action
potentials toward the CNS
2. Motor neurons(efferent neurons) - conduct action
potentials away from the CNS toward muscles or glands.
3. Interneurons- conduct action potentials within the CNS
from one neuron to another.
Structural classification- number of dendrites
1. Multipolar- many dendrites; one axon
2. Bipolar- one dendrite and one axon
3. Pseudo-unipolar- appears to have an axon and no
dendrites
2. Glial Cells
- supporting cells
CNS
1. Astrocytes
- Foot processes cover the surfaces of neurons, blood
vessels, and the pia mater
- form the blood-brain barrier
2. Ependymal Cells
- Ciliated ependymal cells lining the ventricles of the brain
and the central canal of the spinal cord help move
cerebrospinal fluid.
- Ependymal cells on the surface of the choroid plexus
secrete cerebrospinal fluid.
3. Microglia
- phagocytic cells within the CNS
4. Oligodendrocytes
- Form myelin sheaths in CNS
PNS
1. Schwann Cells – form myelin sheath in PNS
2. Satellite Cells - surround neuron cell bodies within the
ganglia
Myelinated and Unmyelinated Axons
1. Myelinated- Myelin protects and electrically insulates
axons from one another; white appearance because of the
high lipid concentration.
  Nodes of Ranvier - gaps in the myelin sheath; myelin condition. The inside of the plasma membrane is negatively
sheath is not continuous but contains gaps every 0.3– charged compared with the outside of the plasma membrane.
1.5 mm. 2. The resting membrane potential is due mainly to the tendency
of positively charged K+ to diffuse out of the cell, which is
 Myelin sheath- 2–3 μm in length.
opposed by the negative charge that develops inside the
2. Unmyelinated - axons rest in invaginations of the Schwann plasma membrane.
cells or oligodendrocytes
Changing the Resting Membrane Potential
11.4 ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE 1. Depolarization, when the inside of the plasma membrane
becomes more positive
Distinct Areas 2. Hyperpolarization- when the inside of the plasma membrane
1. Gray Matter- consists of neuron cell bodies and dendrites;
becomes more negative
dark due to little myelin
CNS
Cortex- surface of the brain. Graded Potential
Nuclei- deeper within the brain 1. small change in the resting membrane potential that is
PNS confined to a small area of the plasma membrane
Ganglion- cluster of neuron cell bodies
2. White matter- consists of bundles of myelinated axons;
Action Potential
whitish
CNS
Nerve tracts or conduction pathways
PNS
Nerves

11.5 ELECTRICAL SIGNAL

Establishing the Resting Membrane Potential
Polarized- opposite charges across membrane
Potential difference- electrical charge difference across the plasma
membrane
Resting membrane potential- potential difference in unstimulated
or resting cell
-70 mv –neuron
-90 mV- skeletal muscle fibers

Electrical Properties
1. Ionic concentration differences

1. An action potential is a larger change in the resting

2. Permeability characteristics
- The plasma membrane is more permeable to K+
because of a higher proportion of K+ leak ion channels
compared with leak channels for other ions
Establishing the Resting Membrane Potential
1. The resting membrane potential is a charge difference across
the plasma membrane when the cell is in an unstimulated
membrane potential that spreads over the entire surface
of the cell.
2. Threshold is the membrane potential at which a graded
potential depolarizes the plasma membrane sufficiently to
produce an action potential.
3. Action potentials occur in an all-or-none fashion. If action
potentials occur, they are of the same magnitude, no
matter how strong the stimulus.
4. Depolarization occurs as the inside of the membrane
becomes more positive because Na+ diffuses into the cell
through voltage-gated ion channels.
5. Repolarization is a return of the membrane potential
toward the resting state. It occurs because voltage-gated
Na+ channels close and Na+ diffusion into the cell slows to
resting levels and because voltagegated K+ channels
continue to open and K+ diffuses out of the cell.
6. The afterpotential is a brief period of hyperpolarization
following repolarization.
Refractory Period
 Absolute RP- time during an action potential when a
second stimulus, no matter how strong, cannot initiate
another action potential.
 Relative RP- follows the absolute refractory period and is
the time during which a stronger-than-threshold stimulus
can evoke another action potential.

Action Potential Frequency

1. The strength of stimuli affects the frequency of action potentials.
 Subthreshold stimulus - produces only a graded potential.
 Threshold stimulus -graded potential that reaches threshold
and results in a single action potential.
 Submaximal stimulus - greater than a threshold stimulus and
weaker than a maximal stimulus. The action potential
frequency increases as the strength of the submaximal
stimulus increases.
 Maximal or a supramaximal stimulus produces a maximum
frequency of action potentials.
2. A low frequency of action potentials represents a weaker
stimulus than a high frequency.
Propagation of Action Potential
1. An action potential generates local currents, which stimulate Temporal Summation
voltagegated Na+ channels in adjacent regions of the plasma
membrane to open, producing a new action potential.
2. In an unmyelinated axon, action potentials are generated
immediately adjacent to previous action potentials.
3. In a myelinated axon, action potentials are generated at
successive nodes of Ranvier.
4. Reversal of the direction of action potential propagation is
prevented by the absolute refractory period.
5. Action potentials propagate most rapidly in myelinated,
large-diameter axons.
11.6 THE SYNAPSE
Synapse - junction between two cells where they communicate
with each other
Presynaptic cell-cell that transmits a signal toward the synapse
Postsynaptic cell- target cell receiving the signal
Average presynaptic neuron synapses- 1000
Average postsynaptic neuron synapses- 10,000
Cerebellum – 100,000
Summation
Spatial Summation
- Action potentials 1 and 2 cause the production of
graded potentials at two different dendrites
- Two action potentials arrive in close succession at the
postsynaptic cell from the presynaptic terminal.
Combined
- An action potential is produced at the trigger zone when
the graded potentials produced as a result of the EPSPs
and IPSPs summate to reach threshold.
-
11.7 NEURONAL PATHWAYS AND CIRCUITS
a. Convergent pathways have many neurons synapsing
with a few neurons.
b. Divergent pathways have a few neurons synapsing
with many neurons.
c. Reverberating circuits have collateral branches of
postsynaptic neurons synapsing with presynaptic
neurons.
d. Parallel after-discharge circuits have neurons that
stimulate several neurons arranged in parallel that
stimulate a common output.

Types of Synapse
1. Electrical Synapse
- occur between cells separated by gap junctions (cardiac
muscle cells) and conncected by connexons
- gap junctions allow a local current to flow directly from
one cell to a neighboring cell
2. Chemical Synapse
- Occurs when neurotransmitter used to communicate a
message to an effector
Neurotransmitter Clinical Examples Acetylcholine Myasthenia Gravis
or Neuromodulator - Antibodies
excitatory in the inappropriately attach to
CNS acetylcholine receptors
and stimulate immune
inhibitory response leading to
or excitatory in destruction of
ANS synapses postsynaptic (↓ no. of Na
channel)
Biogenic Amine
Serotonin Antidepressant Therapy (SSRIs)
- Block serotonic
both inhibitory transporters
and excitatory - ↑ serotonin level in
synaptic cleft
- ↑ stimulation of
postsynaptic neuron
Anxiety (OCD)
Hallucinogens
Dopamine Drug Addiction
- Cocaine blocks dopamine
excitatory or transporters (symporters)
inhibitory - ↑ dopamine levels
Parkinson Disease (drug L-Dopa)
- Destruction of dopamine-
producing neurons
- ↑ production of
dopamine
- Drugs that mimic action
of dopa
Norepinephrine ADHD (SNRIs)
- Block norepinephrine
excitatory transporters (symporters)
- ↑ norepi in synaptic cleft
Amphetamine
- Blocking reuptake or
promote release from
synaptic vesicles
Amino Acid
Gama-Amino Barbiturates (sedatives and
Butyric Acid anesthetics for Epilepsy)
- Enhanced GABA binding
inhibitory effect - Open Cl- channel wider
for extended period
Benzodiazepine (antianxiety)
Alcohol Dependence
Glycine Strychnine Poisoning
- same to GABA by
inhibitory permitting inclow of Cl-
ions
Glutamate Stroke and Excitotoxicity
- Brain tissue ↓ oxygen
excitatory and ATP level
- Failed glutamate
transporter
- ↑ Glutamate level in
synaptic
Purines
Adenosine - Neurotransmitter:
 Stimulates opening of Cl− 12.1 SPINAL CORD
inhibitory and K+ channels
→hyperpolarization Spinal cord- from foramen magnum down to the level of the
- Neuromodulator: second lumbar vertebra
Stimulates closing of Cervical enlargement- where nerve fibers that supply the upper
Ca2+ channels on limbs enter and leave the spinal cord
presynaptic Lumbosacral enlargement- where the nerve fibers supplying the
neurons→inhibiting lower limbs enter or leave the spinal cord.
neurotransmitter release Conus medullaris- spinal cord tapers to form a conelike region
Caffeine Caude equina- inferior end of spinal cord where spinal nerves
- Blocking adenosine exiting resemble horse’s tail
receptors - White matter consists of myelinated axons, gray matter is a
Neuropeptides collection of neuron cell bodies
Substance P Pain Therapy - Babinski Reflex → when no inhibition by CNS is present; stroke
(neurokinin - Blocking release of of bottom of foot causes flexion in babies
receptor) substance P  White matter is divided into 3 columns:
o Dorsal
Excitatory o Ventral
Endorphins Opiates (morphine and heroin) o Lateral
- Bind to endorphin on  Each column has 2 types of pathways:
Inhibitory presynaptic neuron o Ascending Tracts → consist of axons that conduct
- Block the release of actionpotentials toward the brain
substance P o Descending Tracts → consist of axons that conduct
Gases action potentials away from brain
Nitric Oxide Stroke Damage - Gray matter has :
- In stroke: ↑glutamate in  Posterior (Dorsal) Horns: contains axons which synapse
Excitatory postsynaptic neuron w/interneurons
→release of NO (toxic to  Anterior (Ventral) Horns: contain somatic (motor) neurons
cells)  Lateral Horns: contain autonomic neurons
Treatment of Erectile Dysfunction - Central Canal: fluid-filled space in center of the spinal cord
- Release of - Ventral Root: motor (efferent) root of spinal nerve
NO→vasodilation of BV in - Dorsal Root: sensory root of spinal nerve
penis  Dorsal Root Ganglion
o Cell bodies of pseudo-unipolar sensory neurons are located
in the dorsal root ganglia
 Axons of psuedo-unipolar sensory neurons originate in
periphery and pass through spinal nerves and dorsal roots
to posterior horn of gray matter
 In posterior horn, axons either converge with
interneurons or pass into white matter and
ascend/descend
 Ventral and Dorsal Root combine to form spinal
nerve!
 Axons from motor neurons form ventral roots and
pass into spinal nerves

Meninges of the Spinal Cord ( superficial to deepest)

1. Dura mater – thickest; forms a thecal sac (surrounds the SC)
Subdural space
Denticulate ligaments- limit the lateral movement
of the spinal cord
2. Arachnoid mater
Subarachnoid space
3. Pia mater

CHAPTER 12 SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES


12.2 REFLEXES
Neuron - basic structural unit of the nervous system
Reflex arc- basic functional unit of the nervous system; simplest
portion capable of receiving a stimulus and producing a response
Five Components
1. Sensory receptor
2. Sensory neuron
3. Interneuron ( simplex reflex does not involve ths)
4. Motor neuron
5. Effector organ
Reflex- automatic response to a stimulus produced by
a reflex arc.
Types
Monosynaptic reflex- simple neuronal pathways in which sensory
neurons synapse directly with motor neurons
Polysynaptic reflexes- multiple synapses with
interneurons between the sensory and motor neurons
Kinds
1. Stretch reflex- simplest reflex; ex. knee-jerk
Muscle spindles →sensory neuron→alpha motor neuron (SC)
→muscle (contract and resist being stretch)
2. Golgi Tendon Reflex- prevents contracting muscles from
applying excessive tension to tendons.
Golgi tendon organs→sensory neurons→inhibitory
neuron→alpha motor neuron→muscle (relax)
3. Withdrawal/Flexor Reflex- remove a limb or another body part
from a painful stimulus
Pain receptors→sensory neurons→excitatory
neurons→alphamotor neurons→flexor muscle contracts and 3. Lumbosacral Plexus
limb withdraws from painful stimulus
Reciprocal innervations
Collateral branches of the sensory neurons →inhibitory
interneurons→muscle to relax and not oppose the flexor
muscle of withdrawal reflex
Cross extensor reflex
Collateral branches of the sensory neurons→excitatory
interneurons (opposite side of SC) →extensor muscle in
opposite limb contract and support body weight during
withdrawal reflex)
12.3 SPINAL NERVES
-31 pairs
Cervical 8
Throracic 12
Lumbar 5
Sacral 5
Coccygeal 1
Structure of Nerves
Endoneurium
Perineurium
Epineurium
Organization of Spinal Nerves
Dermatome- area of skin supplied with sensory innervation by a
pair of spinal nerves
Ramus- major branch of a spinal nerve
 Dorsal - innervate most of the deep muscles of the dorsal trunk
responsible for moving the vertebral column
 Ventral
Intercostals nerves- innervate the intercostal muscles and
the skin over the thorax.
Plexus - intermingling of nerves; where nerves come together and
then separate
1. Cervical Plexus
Originates from spinal nerves C1 to C4
Phrenic nerve – most important branch of the CP;
innervates the diaphragm (responsible for our ability to
breathe)
2. Brachial Plexus
Originates from the spinal nerves C5 to T1
1. Axillary nerve – innervates 2 shoulder muscles
+ the skin over part of it
2. Median nerve – innervates the anterior forearm
and intrinsic muscles
3. Radial nerve – innervates all the muscles in the
posterior arm and forearm + skin over the
posterior surface of the arm, forearm, hand
4. Musculocutaneous nerve – innervates the
anterior muscles of the arm + skin over the
radial surface of the forearm
5. Ulnar nerve – innervates most of the anterior
forearm muscles and some of the intrinsic hand
muscles + skin over the radial side of the hand
Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
1. Obturator nerve – innervates the muscles of the
Medial(adduct) thigh + skin over it
2. Femoral nerve – innervates the anterior thigh CHAPTER 13 BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES
(flex) muscles + skin over it & medial side of the leg
3. Tibial nerve – innervates the posterior thigh 13.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CNS
muscles, the anterior & posterior leg muscles, Formation of the Neural Tube
most of the intrinsic foot muscles + skin over the
sole of the foot
4. Common fibular nerve – innervates the muscles
of the lateral thigh & leg, some intrinsic foot
muscles + skin over the anterior & lateral leg,
dorsal surface of the foot
5. Sciatic nerve – CT sheath that bounds the tibial and
common fibular nerve

4. Coccygeal Plexus
Spinal nerve S5 and the coccygeal nerve form the coccygeal plexus, Development of Brain Segments
which supplies the muscles of the pelvic floor and the skin over the and Ventricles
coccyx.

Early Embryo Late Emrbyo Adult

Prosencephalon Telencephalon Cerebrum
(forebrain) Diencephalon Diencephalon
Mesencephalon Mesencephalon Mesencephalon
(midbrain) (midbrain)
Rhombencephalon Metencephalon Pons and
(hidbrain) Cerebellumum
Myelencephalon Medulla
Oblongata

Brain
 Part of CNS contained in cranial cavity
 Control center for many of body’s functions
 Parts of the brain
- Brainstem: connects spinal cord to brain; integration of
reflexes necessary for survival
- Cerebellum: involved in control of locomotion, balance,
posture
- Diencephalon: thalamus, subthalamus, epithalamus,
hypothalamus
- Cerebrum: conscious thought, control
 Cranial nerves: part of PNS arise directly from brain. Two pairs 13.2 BRAINSTEM
arise from cerebrum; ten pairs arise from brainstem
Medulla Oblongota
- Most inferior part
- Continuous with spinal cord; has both ascending and
descending nerve tracts
- Discrete nuclei in internal gray matter
- Regulates: heart rate, blood vessel diameter, respiration,
swallowing, vomiting, hiccupping, coughing, and sneezing
- Pyramids: descending nerve tracts on the anterior surface.
Inferiorly fibers decussate; thus each half of the brain controls
the opposite half of the body
- Olives: rounded; protrude from anterior surface. Nuclei within
help regulate balance, coordination, modulation of sound from
inner ear
- Nuclei of cranial nerves V, IX-XII
- Cranial nerves: part of PNS arise directly from brain. Two pairs
arise from cerebrum; ten pairs arise from brainstem
Pons
- Superior to the medulla oblongata
- Fiber tracts: ascending and descending
- Nuclei
 Pontine: anterior portion, relay between cerebrum and
cerebellum
 For cranial nerves V-IX: posterior portion
 Sleep center
 Respiratory center coordinates with center in medulla
Midbrain
- Also called mesencephalon
- Small and superior to pons
- Nuclei
 Of cranial nerves III-V
 Tectum: four nuclei that form mounds on dorsal surface of
midbrain. Corpora quadrigemina
o Each separate part is a colliculus
o Two superior colliculi involved in visual reflexes;
receive information from inferior colliculi, eyes,
skin, cerebrum
o Two inferior colliculi involved in hearing
 Red nuclei of tegmentum: aid in unconscious regulation
and coordination of motor activities
 Substantia nigra: pigmented with melanin; interconnected
with basal nuclei of the cerebrum
- Tracts
 Tegmentum: ascending tracts such as spinal and medial
lemniscus from spinal cord to brain
 Descending: cerebral peduncles from cerebrum through
brainstem to spinal cord
Reticular Formation
- Group of nuclei scattered throughout brainstem
- Controls cyclic activities such as sleep-wake cycle
13.3 CEREBELLUM
- Attached to brainstem posterior to pons
- Cerebellar peduncles: fiber tracts that communicate with other
parts of brain
 Superior: to midbrain
 Middle: to pons
  Inferior: to medulla oblongata
- Gray cortex and nuclei with white matter (tracts) between
- Cortex folded in ridges called folia; white matter resembles a
tree (arbor vitae)
Purkinje Cells in Cerebral Cortex
- Purkinje cells: largest in CNS. Receive 200,000 synapses,
are inhibitory, only cerebellar cortex neurons sending
axons to cerebellar nuclei
- Cortex has 1012 neurons; more than cerebral cortex
Cerebellar Functions
- Flocculonodular lobe: balance and eye movements
- Vermis and medial portion of hemispheres: posture,
locomotion, fine motor coordination leading to smooth,
flowing movements
- Lateral hemispheres, major portion: works with cerebrum
to plan, practice, learn complex movements
13.4 DIENCEPHALON
- Located between brainstem and cerebrum
- Components: thalamus, subthalamus, epithalamus,
hypothalamus
1. Thalamus
- Two lateral portions connected by the intermediate mass
- Surrounded by third ventricle
- Sensory information from spinal cord synapses here before
projecting to cerebrum
o Medial geniculate nucleus: auditory information
o Lateral geniculate nucleus: visual information
o Ventral posterior nucleus: most other types sensory - White matter between the cortex and nuclei
information
- Motor function: ventral anterior and ventral lateral nuclei
- Mood modification: anterior and medial nuclei connected to
limbic system
- Emotion regulation: lateral dorsal nucleus
- Sensory integration: lateral posterior and pulvinar nuclei
2. Subthalamus
- Involved in controlling motor function
- Contains subthalamic nuclei, parts of red nuclei and substantia
nigra.
- Several ascending and descending nerve tracts
3. Epithalamus
- Pineal gland: (hypothetically) causes sleepiness, helps regulate
biological clock, may play a role in onset of puberty
- Habenular nucleus: emotional and visceral responses to odors
4. Hypothalamus
- Most inferior portion of diencephalon
- Mammilary bodies: bulges on ventral surface; olfactory
reflexes and emotional responses to odors
- Infundibulum: stalk extending from floor; connects
hypothalamus to posterior pituitary gland. Controls endocrine - Connective tissue membranes
system.
- Receives input from viscera, taste receptors, limbic system,
nipples, external genitalia, prefrontal cortex
- Efferent fibers to brainstem, spinal cord (autonomic system),
through infundibulum to posterior pituitary, and to cranial
nerves controlling swallowing and shivering
- Important in regulation of mood, emotion, sexual pleasure,
satiation, rage, and fear
13.5 CEREBRUM
- Largest portion of brain
- Composed of right and left hemispheres each of which has the
following lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, insula
- Sulci and Fissures
 Longitudinal fissure: separates the two hemispheres
 Lateral fissure: separates temporal lobe from frontal and
parietal lobes
 Central sulcus: separates frontal and parietal lobes
- Cortex: outer surface
 Gyri are folds
 Sulci are depressions
- Medulla: center
- Nuclei: gray matter within the medulla
- Central sulcus: between the precentral gyrus (primary motor
cortex) and postcentral gyrus (primary somatic sensory cortex)
- Frontal lobe: voluntary motor function, motivation, aggression,
sense of smell, mood
- Parietal lobe: reception and evaluation of sensory information
except smell, hearing, and vision
- Occipital lobe: reception and integration of visual input
- Temporal lobe: reception and evaluation for smell and hearing;
memory, abstract thought, judgment. Insula is within.
Cerebral Medulla
- Association fibers: connections within the same hemisphere
- Commissural fibers: connect one hemisphere to the other
- Projection fibers: tracts between the cerebrum and other parts
of the brain and spinal cord
Basal Nuclei (Basal Ganglia)
- Found in the cerebrum, diencephalon, and midbrain
- Motor function control
- The nuclei in the cerebrum (caudate and lentiform) are called
the corpus striatum
Limbic System
- Part of cerebrum and diencephalon
- Basic survival functions such as memory, reproduction,
nutrition
- Emotions
- In cerebrum: cingulate gyrus and hippocampus
- Various nuclei of the thalamus
- Part of the basal nuclei, hypothalamus, olfactory cortex, fornix
13.6 MENINGES, VENTRICLES, AND CEREBROSPINAL
FLUID
Meninges
 Dura mater: superficial
 Arachnoid mater
 Pia mater: bound tightly to brain
- Spaces
 Subdural: serous fluid
 Subarachnoid: CSF
Dura Mater
- Superficial, tightly bound to internal periosteum except:
 Falx cerebri in longitudinal fissure between the two
cerebral hemispheres
 Tentorium cerebelli between Cerebellum and cerebrum
 Falx cerebelli between the two cerebellar hemispheres.
 Venous sinuses form at the bases of the three folds.
Arachnoid Mater; Subdural Space
- Thin, wispy layer
- Subdural space: between dura and arachnoid; only a small
amount of serous fluid within
Pia Mater and Subarachnoid Space
- Pia mater: thin, delicate C.T. membrane closely adhered to
brain; follows external contours.
- Subarachnoid space: contains web-like strands of
arachnoid, blood vessels, and cerebrospinal fluid.
Ventricles
- Lateral ventricles: within cerebral hemispheres; separated by
septa pellucida
- Third ventricle: within diencephalon
- Interventricular foramina join lateral ventricles with third
- Fourth ventricle: associated with pons and medulla oblongata. Cranial Nerve Reflexes
Connected to third ventricle by the cerebral aqueduct,
continuous with the spinal cord, and connected to the
subarachnoid space by the lateral and medial apertures
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
- Similar to serum, but most protein removed
- Bathes brain and spinal cord
- Protective cushion around CNS
- Choroid plexuses produce CSF which fills ventricles and other
parts of brain and spinal cord
 Composed of ependymal cells, their support tissue, and
associated blood vessels
 Blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier
o Endothelial cells of capillaries attached by tight
junctions
o Substances do not pass between cells
o Substances must pass through cells
o Makes the barrier very selective
13.7 BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE BRAIN
- Brain
 Requires a tremendous amount of blood
 Receives 15-20% of blood pumped by heart
 Interruption can cause unconsciousness and irreversible
brain damage
 High metabolic rate; dependent upon constant supply of
oxygen and glucose
 Receives blood through arteries: internal carotids and
vertebral arteries. The vertebral arteries join to form the
basilar artery. Carotids plus basilar form the cerebral
arterial circle (Circle of Willis).
- Blood-brain barrier
 Capillary endothelial cells along with astrocytes and
basement membrane
 To be considered when developing drugs
Blood-Brain Barrier
- Endothelial cells (lining all capillaries) have tight junctions
between them.
- Astrocytes have foot processes that influence capillary
permeability.
- Basement membrane of endothelium.
- These three taken together:
 Lipid-soluble substances pass through by diffusion:
nicotine, ethanol, heroin
 Water soluble substances move through by mediated
transport: amino acids, glucose.
13.8 CRANIAL NERVES
- Indicated by
 Roman numerals I-XII from anterior to posterior
 Names
- May have one or more of three functions
 Sensory (special or general)
 Somatic motor: control of skeletal muscles)
 Parasympathetic (regulation of glands, smooth muscles,
cardiac muscle)
- X (Vagus): reflexes having to do with heart rate, blood
pressure, and respiration
- Reflexes involving both cranial nerves and brainstem:
 Turning the eyes toward sudden noise, touch on skin, flash
of light
 Eyes tracking a moving object.
 Reflex using VIII, V, and VII to contract muscles associated
with middle ear that protect ear ossicles
 Chewing reactions to textures of food, movement of
tongue pushing food under tooth-row and out of harm's
way
Descending Tracts
- Project from upper motor neurons in cerebral cortex to lower
motor neurons in spinal cord and brainstem
 Direct → extend directly from upper motor neurons to
lower motor neurons
 Indirect → no direct connection between cortical and
spinal neurons
- Control different types of movements
  Contains nuclei involved in coordinating eye movements,
controlling pupil diameter, lens shape and
reward/reinforcement
 Contains substantia nigra: black nuclear mass which
regulates general body movements
 Damage to brainstem causes death, whereas damage to
cerebrum/cerebellum does not cause death

 Reticular Formation: loose network of neuron cell bodies

scattered throughout brainstem; involved in regulation of
cycles such as sleep-wake cycle (reticular activating system) →
Norepinephrine
o Also regulates cyclical motor functions like respiration,
walking, chewing, arousing and maintaining consciousness,
sleep-wake cycle
o Damage to the cells of reticular formation can cause coma

Cerebellum
 Attached to brainstem by cerebellar peduncles
o Provide routes of communication between cerebellum and
other parts of CNS
 Coordinated movement and learning

Diencephalon
 Between brainstem and cerebrum
 3 Main Components:

CHAPTER 13 BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES
Brainstem
 Connects spinal cord to brain
 Consists of :
o Medulla oblongata
 Extends from foramen magnum to pons
 Contains nuclei for functions such as regulation of heart
rate and blood vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing,
vomiting, coughing, sneezing, balance, and balance
 Pyramids: involved in conscious control of skeletal muscle
o Pons
 Relay information from cerebrum and cerebellum
(functional bridge between them)
 Controls chewing and salivation (pons only), as well as
functions such as breathing, swallowing, and balance (like
medulla oblongata)
o Midbrain
 Located between pons and diencephalon
 Colliculi: four mounds on dorsal part of midbrain
 2 inferior colliculi → relay centers for auditory nerve
pathways in CNS
 2 superior colliculi → visual reflexes and receive
touch/auditory input
o Thalamus
 Largest part of diencephalon
 Connected in center by interthalamic adhesion
 Relay for sensory information!
 Influences mood
 Registers unlocalized, uncomfortable perception of pain
o Epithalamus
 Superior to thalamus
 Small, few nuclei involved in emotional/visceral response
to odors
 Pineal Gland: influences onset of puberty; plays role in
controlling long-term cycles influenced by light-dark cycle
o Hypothalamus
 Inferior part of diencephalon
 Maintenance of homeostasis
 Regulate body temperature, hunger, thirst
 Sensations like sexual pleasure, rage, fear, relaxation,
“nervous perspirations” (emotional responses)
 Infundibulum: extends from bottom of hypothalamus to
pituitary gland
 Hypothalamus plays role in secretion of hormones
from pituitary gland (controls pituitary gland)
 Mammillary bodies form visible swellings on backside of
hypothalamus → emotional responses to odors and
memory
Cerebrum
 Largest part of brain
 Divided into left and right hemispheres by a longitudinal
fissure
 Has many folds called gyri (increase surface area of cortex)
 Has intervening grooves called sulci
 Divided into lobes:
o Frontal lobe: CHAPTER 14 INTEGRATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Control of voluntary motor functions (Phineas Gage), FUNCTIONS
motivation, aggression (impulsivity), mood, and smell
o Parietal lobe: 14.1 SENSATION
 Evaluates sensory information such as touch, pain, Sensory Functions
temperature, and balance (sensation) - Sensory input to brainstem and diencephalon helps maintain
o Occipital lobe: homeostasis
 Vision - Input to cerebrum and cerebellum keeps us informed about
 Not separate from other lobes our environment and allows CNS to control motor functions
o Temporal lobe: - Small portion of sensory input results in perception (conscious
 Hearing, smell, memory awareness of stimuli)

Ascending (Sensory) Tracts

- Pathways in brain and spinal cord
 Dorsal Column: fine touch!
 Spinothalamic Tract: carries info on pain (Nociceptor)
 These 2 pathways take different, independent routes
- Send info via action potentials toward brain
- Each tract is involved in a limited type of sensory input since
each tract has axons from specific, specialized receptors for
particular stimuli only; made of 2-3 neurons in sequence

Cerebral Cortex
- Surface of cerebrum, composed of gray matter
- Controls thinking, communicating, remembering,
understanding, and initiates involuntary movements
- Interpret action potentials

Sensory Areas of Cerebral Cortex

1. Primary Sensory Areas: location of sensation perception;
ascending tracts project to these specific regions in the
cerebral cortext
2. Primary Somatic Sensory Cortex: general sensry area;
located in parietal lobe posterior to central sulcus
 Sensory fibers relay information to primary
sensory cortex
3. Association Areas: regulation; adjacent to primary sensory
areas

14.2 CONTROL OF SKELETAL MUSCLES

Motor Functions
- Motor system of CNS maintains posture and balance
 Also, moves trunk, head, limbs, tongue, and eyes, and
communicating through facial expressions and speech
- Involuntary Movements → occur without conscious thought
- Voluntary movements → consciously activated to achieve a
specific goal
 Stimulation of upper and lower motor neuron
o Upper motor neuron: located in cerebral cortex;
axons of upper motor neurons form descending
tracts that connect to lower motor neurons
o Lower motor neuron: located in spinal cord and
brainstem; axons leave CNS and extend through
spinal/cranial nerves to skeletal muscles → they
form motor units

Motor Areas of Cerebral Cortex

- Primary Motor Cortex: posterior frontal lobe; control voluntary
movement of skeletal muscle
 Upper motor neurons project from this cortex to parts of
the body
- Premotor Area: frontal lobe; motor functions are organized
here before they’re actually initiated in primary motor cortex - Olfactory cortex and deep cortical regions/nuclei of cerebrum
- Prefrontal Area: anterior frontal lobe; control motivation,
regulation of emotional behavior and mood
14.4 HIGHER BRAIN FUNCTIONS
1. Communication between Right & Left Hemisphere
 Right hemisphere deals w/ left half of body
 Left hemisphere deals w/ right half of body
 Shared information through commissures (bundle of nerve
fibers passing from one side to other side)
o Corpus Callosum: largest commissure; thick band
of nerve tracts
 Left hemisphere → analytical (mathematics and speech)
 Right hemisphere → 3D, spatial perception, musical ability
2. Speech
- Left hemisphere
- Sensory Speech Area (Wernicke Area):
 Parietal lobe
 Understanding and formulating coherent speech
- Motor Speech Area (Broca Area):
 Frontal lobe
 Controls speech movement
- Damage to these two areas causes: Aphasia (absent, defective
speech or language comprehension)
 Long-term memory involves structural and functional
changes in neurons that lead to long-term enhancement of
synaptic transmission
 Memory engrams are involved in long-term retention
5. Limbic System and Emotions
and diencephalon
- Influences long-term declarative memory, emotions, visceral
- responses to emotions, motivation, and mood
- Olfactory nerves is source of sensory input to limbic system
 Responds to olfactory stimulation by initiating responses
for survival (hunger, thirst, etc.)
- Problems in limbic system can result in voracious
appetite,increased sexual activity, and docility
14.5 EFFECTS OF AGING ON NERVOUS SYSTEM
- Sensory function gradually declines with age due to decrease in
number of sensory neurons, decrease in functioning of
remaining neurons, and decrease in CNS processing
 Decreases touch sensation, balance, coordination, etc.
 Reflexes slow
 Brain size/weight decreases
 Short-term memory decreases
Thinking, problem-solving, intelligence declines

3. Brain Waves and Consciousness

- Electroencephalogram (EEG): detect simultaneous action
potentials in large numbers of neurons
 Normally irregular since the brain is not synchronous
 Sometimes produce patterns known as Brain Waves
o Alpha Waves: person is awake in quiet state
o Beta Waves: higher frequency than alpha, occur
during intense mental activity
o Delta Waves: occur during deep sleep, in infants,
and in those with severe brain disorders
o Theta Waves: seen in children or in frustrated
adults
4. Memory
- Working, short-term, and long-term (declarative or procedural)
- Working Memory: briefly stored information required for
immediate performance of a task
 Lasts a few seconds
 Occurs in frontal cortex
 Limited to about 7 bits of information
- Short-Term Memory: lasts longer than working memory
(minutes to days)
 Stored by increased synaptic transmission
 Transferred to long-term memory
- Long-Term Memory: minutes to permanent by consolidation
(gradual process involving formation of newer, stronger
synaptic connections)
 Length of storage depends on frequency of use
 Declarative (Explicit) memory: retention of facts
 Procedural (Reflexive) memory: development of motor
skills
CHAPTER 16: AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

16.1 OVERVIEW OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

ANS- maintains homeostasis of tye body by regilating many
activiyies, including HR, RR, BT, digestive processes, and urinary
functions

16.2 CONTRASING THE SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Table 16.1

16.3 ANATOMY OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

ANS Divisions
1. Sympathetic
2. Parasympathetic
3. Enteric

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic differs in:

1. location of their preganglionic neuron cell bodies within the CNS
2. location of their autonomic ganglia in the PNS

Sympathetic Division
- thoracolumbar division (cell bodies of preganglionic neurons
are in the lateral horns of the SC gray matter T1 and L2
extending to cervical and sacral division
- Two Types of Sympathetic Ganglia
1. Sympathetic Chain Ganglia (Paravertebral)
 chain in left and right side of vertebral column
 Four Routes of Exit
a. Spinal Nerves
b. Sympathetic Nerves- supply organs in thoracic
cavity
c. Splanchnic Nerves- composed of preganglionic
unline postganglionic of sympathetic nerve
d. Innervation of the Adrenal Gland
2. Collateral Ganglia (Prevertebral)
 unpaired ganglia in abdominopelvic cavity

Parasympathetic Division
- craniosacral divion (cell bodies located either within the
cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem or within the lateral
parts of the gray matter in S2-S4
- brainstem→preganglionic neurons→terminal ganglia→
post ganglionic neurons→cranial nerves II, VII, IX, and X
- sacral region→preganglionic neurons→terminal ganglia
postganglionic nerves (pelvic splanchnic nerves)

Sympathetical Division Distribution

1. Spinal Nerves
2. Head and Neck nerve plexuses
- sympathetic nerves derived mostly from superior
sympathetic chain ganglion
3. Thoracic nerve plexuses
 - sympathetic nerves derived mostly from superior cervical
sympathetic chain ganglion, cervicothoracic ganglion, and
fifth thoracic sympathetic chain ganglion
- plexus:
o cardiac
o pulmonary
4. Abdominopelvic nerve plexuses
- sympathetic nerves derived mostly from sympathetic
chain from T5 and below
- plexus:
o celiac- diaphragm, spleen, liver, gallbladder
o adrenal glands, kidneys, testes, and ovaries
o superior mesenteric- pancreas, small intestine,
ascending colon, and transverse colon
o inferior mesenteric- colon to the rectum
o superior and inferior hypogastric plexuses-
descending colon to the rectum, urinary bladder, and
reproductive organs
Parasympathetic Division Distribution
1. Cranial nerves innervating the head and neck
 Ciliary ganglion-Oculomotor nerve- ciliaryuscles and iris
 Pterygopalatine ganglion-facial nerve-lacrimal hland and
mucosal glands of nasal cavity and palate
 Otic ganglionstrxu-glossophrayngal nerve- parotid salivary
gland
2. Vagus nerve and thoracic nerve plexuses
 Vagus nerve- heart and lungs; esophagus
3. Abdominal nerve plexus
 Celiac and superior mesenteric
4. Pelvic splanchnic nerves and pelvic nerve plexuses
 hypogastric plexus
Enteric Nervous System
- nerve plexuses within the walls of digestive tract
- Three sources
1. Sensory neurons digestive tract to CNS
2. ANS motor neurons CNS to digestive tract
3. Enteric neurons
- Three Major Types of Enteric Neurons
1. Enteric sensory neurons-
2. Enteric motor neurons
3. Enteric interneurons
- Capable of monitoring and controlling the digestive tract
independently of the CNS thru local reflexes
16.4 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Sympathetic VS Parasympathetic Activity
Neurotransmitters
1. Cholinergic- secretes acetylcholine
2. Adrenergic- secretes norephinephrine and epinephrine
3. Other substances
 Nitric acid
 Fatty acids (eicosanoids)
 Peptides (gastrin, somatostatin, cholecystokinin,
vasoactive intestinal peptide. Enkephalins, and
Substance P)
 Monoamines (dopamine, serotonin, and histamine)
Receptors
Agonists- bind yo specific receptirs and activate them
Antagonists- bind to specific receptors and prevent them from
being activated
Cholinergic Receptors
Classification
1. Nicotinic
 Nicotine- alkaloid in tobacco
 Located on cell bodies of both sympathetic and
parasympathetic postganglionic neurons in
autonomic ganglia
 Excitatory effect
2. Muscarinic
 Muscarine-alkaloid extracted from poisonous
mushrooms
 located on the cells of all parasympathetic effectors
and some sympathetic effectors
 may be excitatory or inhibitory
Adrenergic Receptors
 located on most sympathetic effectors
 may be excitatory or inhibitory
Table 16.3
16.5 REGULATION OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
 Autonomic reflexes control most of the activity of visceral
organs, glands, and blood vessels.
 Autonomic reflex activity can be influenced by the
hypothalamus and higher brain centers.
 The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions can
influence the activities of the enteric nervous system
through autonomic reflexes. The enteric nervous system
can function independently of the CNS through local
reflexes.
16.6 FUNCTIONAL GENERALIZATIONS OF THE
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. stimulatory vs inhibitory
2. opposite effects
3. cooperative effects
4. general vs localized