MARAMAG, FRANCINE ROSE L.

1B VETMED
Chemical Reaction
A type of reaction that causes the change
in the internal structure of the substance
is known as a chemical reaction.
Physical Reaction
A type of reaction that causes the change in the
physical features of the substance without disturbing
their internal structure is known as a physical
reaction.

Change in Properties
It causes a change in the chemical The physical reaction causes the change in the
properties and composition of the physical properties of the reactant, e.g., color, shape,
reactant. and size, etc.

Type of Reaction
A chemical reaction is a type of The physical reaction is a type of reversible reaction.
irreversible reaction.
Original Matter
During a chemical reaction, the original During the physical reaction, the original matter can
matter cannot recover after the recover after the completion of the reaction.
completion of the reaction.

Formation of New Product

The chemical reaction causes the creation There is no new product formed during a physical
of a new product. reaction.
Energy
Energy absorbed or evolved while a During a physical reaction, there is no evolution and
chemical reaction. absorption of energy.
Use of Equation
Chemical reactions can express by using The physical reaction cannot express by the
a chemical equation. equation.
Examples
Examples of a chemical reaction are Examples of physical reactions are cutting off trees,
rusting of iron, burning of paper or wood freezing or melting of water, and tearing of paper,
and setting of curd, etc. etc.
 Types of Chemical Explanation General Reaction
Reactions

Combination reaction Two or more compounds A + B → AB

combine to form one
compound.

Decomposition reaction The opposite of a combination AB → A + B

reaction – a complex molecule
breaks down to make simpler
ones.

Precipitation reaction Two solutions of soluble salts A + Soluble salt B  →

are mixed resulting in an Precipitate + soluble salt C
insoluble solid (precipitate)
forming.

Neutralization reaction An acid and a base react with Acid + Base → Salt + Water
each other. Generally, the
product of this reaction is salt
and water.

Combustion reaction Oxygen combines with a A + O2 → H2O + CO2

compound to form carbon
dioxide and water. These
reactions are exothermic,
meaning they give off heat.

Displacement reaction One element takes place with A + BC → AC + B

another element in the
compound.
 What is Chirality?

The geometric property of a rigid object (or spatial arrangement of points or atoms) of being
non-superposable on its mirror image; such an object has no symmetry elements of the second
kind (a mirror plane, [sigma] = S1, a centre of inversion, i = S2, a rotation-reflection axis, S2n).

If the object is superposable on its mirror image the object is described as being achiral. See also
handedness.

Example of an Isomer

There are several examples of isomers, described as follows:

Methoxyethane and Propanol

The chemical structure, C3H8O exists as several isomers of propanol, as well as the isomer
methoxyethane. The two propanol isomers consist of propan-1-ol and propan-2-ol (also known
as isopropyl alcohol), which are distinguished by the placement of an oxygen atom either on the
terminal carbon atom or the central carbon atom, respectively. Methoxyethane is also an isomer
of C3H8O, but is an ether due to the placement of an oxygen atom in the center of the molecule,
rather than connected to a single carbon atom.

Methylacetylene and Allene

Methylacetylene and allene are an example of C3H4 isomers, which differ based on the type of
bonding exhibited by the molecules. Methylacetylene has one triple bond and one single bond
between the carbon atoms and allene exhibits two double bonds between the carbons.

Fulminate and Cyanate

Fulminate and cyanate are an example of isomers of CNO. Fulminate exhibits an arrangement in
which the N is bound to both the C and O atoms, whereas in cyanate, both the O and N are
bound to the central C atom.

Glucose and Fructose

Glucose and fructose are an example of C6H12O6 isomers, which differ based on the position of a
double bonded O atom. In glucose, the O is situated on the first C, whereas it is located on the
second C in fructose (the structures of each are shown below).

Pharmaceutical Examples

Isomers are extremely important in the development of pharmaceuticals, as typically, only one
isomer of a particular molecule will exert the desired effect. For example, only one isomer for
ibuprofen will bind to the necessary target in the human body and induce pain relief. Similarly,
cisplatin is an effective anticancer drug, whereas its isomer, transplatin, exhibits no anti-cancer
benefits at all. One of the most famous examples is that of thalidomide (pictured below). While
one isomer of thalidomide is a potent morning sickness suppressant, it was delivered at a 50:50
ratio with its stereoisomer, which was responsible for the birth defects observed in the children
born in the 1950’s from mothers who took the drug.

Enzymatic Reactions

One of the most important functions of isomers in the human body is that of enzymatic reactions.
The orientation, functional groups, bond lengths, and overall 3D structure of a molecule impacts
its ability to bind to enzymes. Enzymes typically recognize a specific molecular shape similar to
a lock and key. Therefore, isomers which have a different physical shape will not be able to bind
to a particular enzyme, despite having the same molecular formula. An example of this is the
enzyme triose-phosphate isomerase, which is involved in glycolysis by catalyzing the
interconversion of dihydroxyacetone and (R)-glyceraldehyde phosphate; however, the isomer
(S)-glyceraldehyde does not achieve the same reaction as it does not fit into the triose-phosphate
enzyme. Enzymes that function to convert molecules into their isomers (e.g., triose-phosphate
isomerase described above) are called isomerases.
 Alkene

An alkene, also called an olefin, is one of the four main types of hydrocarbons. Alkenes must
contain at least one carbon to carbon double bond in their chain. Alkenes are true hydrocarbons,
meaning they are made up of only hydrogen and carbon.
Alkenes have the molecular formula Cn H2n, where:
 C is Carbon.
 H is Hydrogen.
 n refers to the number of carbon atoms.

Alkenes are similar to Alkanes except they contain a double bond between two carbon atoms
instead of a single bond. When one carbon shares a double bond with another, this limits the
number of hydrogen which can be bonded (resulting in less hydrogen atoms per carbon atom).
The two simplest alkenes are ethene (C2H4) and propene (C3H6).
 Ball and Stick Model of the Two Simplest Alkenes

Figure 1. Ethene.

Figure 2. Propene.
Alkanes can be recognized by their -ene suffix.
When there are 4 or more carbons in a chain, the position of the double bond can create different
possible structures and uses a more precise nomenclature. Compounds that have the same
chemical formula but have different bonding arrangements are called structural isomers.
How Does the Naming of Alkenes Work?
Organic chemistry nomenclature, the rules used to name chemical compounds, can be
complicated and confusing. Thankfully, the rules set out to name alkenes are fairly straight
forward and can be arranged into five key steps.

Step One:

Count the longest unbroken carbon chain that you can find. Just like with alkanes, the number of
carbons dictates the prefix used in naming the molecule:

Steps to Naming Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Number of Carbons Prefix

One Meth-
Two Eth-
Three Prop-
Four But-
Five Pent-
Six Hex-
Seven Hept-
Eight Oct-
Nine Non-
Ten Dec-

Step Two:

Count the number of double bonds. If the molecule has one double bond, then the suffix -ene is
used. If there's two, -diene is used. For three, it's -triene, and so on.

Step Three:

Look for any substituents on the carbon chain. A substituent is any group coming off the chain
that isn't a hydrogen. For example, there might be a CH3 group attached to the chain. In this
case, the word methyl- would be put in front of the name of the parent alkene. A C2H5 group is
named as ethyl and a C3H7 group is called a propyl group. Other common substituents include
halogens (group 17 elements). If a fluorine atom is attached, the word fluro- is used. If it's
chlorine, it's chloro-, if it's bromine, it's bromo-, and if it's iodine it's iodo-. Of course, there are
hundreds of potential substituents that could be attached to a carbon chain, but in naming basic
alkenes these are the most common.

Step Four:
Determine the numbering of the carbon chain. This is done by assigning the end of the chain
closest to the double bond as carbonone and then numbering down the chain from there. In other
words, the double-bonded carbons must have the lowest number possible. Once you've numbered
each carbon you can assign a number to any substituent, for example 2-methyl or 4-chloro, and
number the double bond. If the double bond was on the third carbon from the end of a seven
carbon chain you would name it hept-3-ene or 3-heptene (either are acceptable).

Step Five:

Focusing on the double bond, determine whether the molecule might exhibit cis/trans isomerism
To do this, check to see whether each of the carbon atoms participating in the bond has two
different groups attached to it. For example, ethene doesn't give cis/trans isomers because both
carbon atoms only have hydrogens in them. 2-Butene, however, does have the possibility of
isomerism, because the doubly bonded carbons both have a methyl group and a hydrogen group
attached. If no isomerism is possible, you're finished!

Step Six:

If cis/trans isomerism is possible, look carefully at the groups on either side of the double bond.
If the highest priority groups are on the same side, the prefix cis- should be added. If they're on
the opposite sides, trans- should be used. To determine the highest priority group, look at the
atomic numbers of the atoms bonded directly to each carbon. The atom with the higher atomic
number is the higher priority; for example, in the case of 2-butene, the methyl group is higher
priority that the hydrogen group because carbon has a higher atomic number than hydrogen. If
both atoms are the same, then continue down the chain until there's a point of difference. If
there's more than one double bond, this process should be repeated and the molecule will be
named either cis,cis , trans,trans, cis,trans, or trans,cis.

Make sense yet? It can be more than a little confusing the first time you learn nomenclature, so
here's an example to better illustrate the steps you need to go through.
In the case of this compound, going through the steps would look like this:

1. There are six carbons in the longest chain. Therefore, the prefix is hex-
2. There is only one double bond, so the suffix to be used is -ene. This means that the basic alkene
unit is hexene.
3. There is a substituent on one of the carbons. It's a CH3 group, which is also known as a methyl
group. Therefore, our name has expanded to methylhexene.
4. The lowest number that the doubly bonded carbon can have is 2. Therefore, we should start
numbering from the right of the molecule. The methyl group is on carbon three, giving us 3-
methylhex-2-ene.
5. Cis/trans isomerism is possible in this molecule. The second carbon is bonded to a CH3 and a
hydrogen. The third carbon is bonded to a CH3 and a CH2CH2CH3.
6. For the second carbon, the highest priority group is CH3, because carbon has a higher atomic
number than hydrogen. This group is pointing above the molecule. For the third carbon,
CH2CH2CH3 has the higher priority. Even though both of the atoms bonded directly to the
doubly bonded carbon are the same, as you continue down the chain of each group it's clear
that CH2CH2CH3 wins out. This group is pointing below the molecule. Therefore, the molecule is