NERVOUS SYSTEM LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM
- Organ system that composed of nerve
cells and glial cells that carry messages Central Nervous System
to and from the brain and spinal cord to
the different parts of the body. - Brain and Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System

 Autonomic – controls self-regulated

actions of organs and glands
 Sympathetic – arousing
 Parasympathetic – calming

 Sensory Input  Somatic – controls voluntary

- information received by the movements of skeletal muscles
sensory receptors of our eyes,
nose, tongue, ears, skin. NERVOUS TISSUES
- densely packed of cells
 Integration
- processing of the information Neurons (nerve cells)
and deciding what should be - transmit signals throughout the body
done about it.
 Motor Output Neuroglia (glial cells)
- response that occurs when the - connection, support, and protection of
nervous system activates the neurons
parts of our body.
NEURONS
SENSORY RECEPTORS
- send action potentials or nerve
 Mechanoreceptors impulses responsible for all our body’s
 Physical stimuli responses (actions, thoughts, emotions,
 Thermoreceptors etc ).
 Changes in temperature
 Chemoreceptors
 Chemicals
 Photoreceptors
 Light
 Baroreceptors
 Blood pressure
 Pain receptors
 Excess heat, pressure, etc.
 Electromagnetic receptors
 Electromagnetic energy
PARTS OF A NEURON

 Cell body
- nucleus and organelles
 Dendrites
- receive information from other
neurons and brings to cell body
 Axons
- wrapped with myelin sheath;
transmit information away
CELLS TYPES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
from the cell body
 Node of Ranvier
Central Nervous System
- gaps in the myelinated axons;
 Astrocyte – blood brain barrier;
allow ions to diffuse in and out
anchors the neurons to their
of neurons
blood supply; exchange of
 Synapse
nutrients between neurons and
- junction between 2 neurons
capillaries
 Neurotransmitters
 Microglial cells – immune cells
- chemical messengers sent
of the nervous system;
across synapses
phagocyte
 Ependymal cells – lines the
TYPES OF NEURONS
brain and the spinal cord;
 Sensory Neurons – Receptor to CNS
produces CSF
(efferent or receives information)
 Oligodendrocytes – wrap
 Relay Neurons – CNS to CNS
around neurons; produces
 Motor Neurons – CNS to Effector
myelin sheath
(afferent or sends information)
Peripheral Nervous System

 Satellite cells – same as

Astrocytes
 Schwann cells – same as
Oligodendrocytes

 HOW DOES A NEURON SEND NERVE

IMPULSES?
 MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
- difference in charge between
two regions separated by a
membrane
SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMPS
 Outside (+) – sodium ions, Na+
 Inside (-) – potassium ions, K+ and
negatively-charged proteins
 Electrochemical Gradient – varying
concentrations of ions inside and
outside a cell; diffusion
 For every two K+ ions that enters the
neuron, it pumps out three Na+ ions.
1. When a neuron has a negative
membrane potential, it is said to be
POLARIZED
Resting Membrane
Potential = -70 mV
2. A neuron is DEPOLARIZED if is able
to produce a big change in the membrane
potential enough to open a lot of the
voltage gated channels (sodium channels).

 This creates a difference in the 3. During DEPOLARIZATION , the

concentration of the ions inside and membrane potential of the neuron
outside the neuron and THUS A becomes more positive (40 mV) resulting to
DIFFERENCE IN CHARGE (MEMBRANE an action potential in which it sends
POTENTIAL). electrical signals to its axons.

4. During REPOLARIZATION, sodium

channels close and potassium channels
 WHEN DO NEURONS CREATE RESPONSES?
open.
 ACTION POTENTIAL
- also known as nerve impulses
5. HYPERPOLARIZATION occurs when the
- needed to produce responses
membrane potential drops to ≥ 75 mV.
of the body
- caused by the opening of
voltage gated channels

 The bigger the difference in charges

between the inside and outside of the cell,
the bigger is the potential the more intense
the action potential will be.

 WHAT CREATES AN ACTION POTENTIAL?

 Membranes are what create an
action potential by separating the
positive and negative regions.
SALTATORY CONDUCTION
ION CHANNELS
• Voltage gated Channels - propagation of action potentials along
• Ligand gated Channels axons coated with myelin sheets from
• Mechanically gated Channels one node of Ranvier to the next
 - increases conduction velocity of action
potentials
- affects the transmission speed of
neurons
 WHAT HAPPENS NEXT WHEN AN ACTION
POTENTIAL REACHES THE END OF AN
AXON?
 SYNAPSES
- junction between neurons
- communication links between neurons
- use neurotransmitters (chemical
signals) that diffuse across a synaptic
gap to deliver a message to another
neuron
 PRE-SYNAPTIC CELL
- the cell sending the signal
- axon terminal
- contains synaptic vesicle enclosing
neurotransmitters
 POST-SYNAPTIC CELL
- the cell receiving the signal
- accepts the neurotransmitters in the
dendrites having ligand gated channels
 When an action potential reaches an axon
terminal, it opens the voltage gated Ca2+
channels .
 The entry of calcium ions inside the cell
causes the synaptic vesicles to fuse with the
cell membrane and release the
neurotransmitters .
 Neurotransmitters bind to the ligand gated
ion channels in the dendrites of the post
synaptic cell causing them to open,
generating again an action potential.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
- chemical messengers
- can be broken down by enzymes in the
synapse or can be recycled
 RE-UPTAKE
- neurotransmitters can be re-absorbed
by the presynaptic cell
TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Excitatory neurotransmitters – depolarizes a
postsynaptic cell
• Inhibitory neurotransmitters – hyperpolarizes
a postsynaptic cell
EXAMPLES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
 DOPAMINE
- pleasure
- linked to depression, ADHD, Alzheimer’s
disease, and anxiety
 SEROTONINE
- inhibitory neurotransmitter
- associated with mood and sleep
 OXYTOCIN
- associated with mood
- contraction of muscles during childbirth
REFLEXES – response to stimulus
 REFLEX ARC
- Stimulus is detected by sensory
receptors.
- Sensory (afferent) neurons send the
information to CNS.
- Interneurons in the CNS processes the
information during integration.
- Motor (efferent) neurons sends
information away from CNS.
- Responses are made by effector organs
(muscles, glands)
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

- an organ system that involves the

gonads (sex organs), the various sex
hormones they secrete, and gametes
(sex cells) produced
- responsible for the biological process of
producing an offspring
- includes glands, ducts, external genitals
and brain parts that aid the function of
gonads and sex hormones

THE HUMAN BRAIN

 MIDBRAIN
- brain stem
- receives and processes the sensory
information
- unconscious responses

 HINDBRAIN
- center in the brain responsible for
involuntary movements especially in
the respiratory and circulatory system
- associated in sleep and appetite

 FOREBRAIN
- regulation of body temperature,
reproductive functions, eating, sleeping,
and the display of emotions (limbic
system)
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 OVARIES
- produce ova or egg cells and sex
hormones such as estrogen and
progesterone
- enclosed in a sac of composed of
connective and epithelial tissues
 FALLOPIAN TUBE
- made of smooth muscles and mucous
cells
- brings oocytes (immature egg cells) to
uterus
 UTERUS 1. Hypothalamus secretes
- stretchable muscular organ gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH).
- where the baby grows (womb)

Parts of the Uterus 2. GnRH triggers the pituitary gland to

produce follicle-stimulating hormone
 Perimetrium – outer lining of
(FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
the uterus
 Myometrium – smooth muscles that
3. FSH stimulates the growth of
contract during labor
follicles, which produces estrogen that tells
 Endometrium – During fertilization, a
them to mature
zygote attaches to it for gestation
(growth process of zygote). Otherwise,
4. Estrogen tells the pituitary gland to
it ruptures and causes menstruation
secrete more LH to aid FSH to do its
function in the maturation of follicles.

5. The mature follicle fuses with the wall of

the ovary, ruptures, and releases the
mature egg cell (ovulation).

6. Damaged follicles have decreased

estrogen production and become corpus
luteum, which releases progesterone that
stops the release of FSH and LH.

7. Mature egg cell travels through the

fallopian tube until it reaches the uterus
where it is supposed to be fertilized.

OVARIAN CYCLE

- The ovary is composed of ovarian

follicles that is composed of oocytes
(immature egg cells) surrounded by
follicle cells.

 OOGENESIS – maturation of follicles and

oocytes inside the ovaries
 OVULATION – release of mature egg cell
from an ovary to fallopian tube and
eventually to the uterus

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
- occurs in the uterus
- preparation for producing a fertilized
egg, and pregnancy
- driven by ovarian cycle
 FERTILIZATION
- an egg fuses with a sperm cell
producing a zygote
 WHAT IF A MATURE EGG CELL IS NOT YET
FERTILIZED?
 If fertilization fails to occur,
endometrium ruptures and causes
menstruation
 WHY DO WOMEN BLEED BLOOD DURING
THEIR PERIOD?
 When an egg cell is not fertilized,
estrogen and progesterone levels
decrease. This leads to the shedding
of the endometrium. The blood lost
during the period is the lining of
the uterus (endometrium).
 Once the lining is completely shed,
a new menstrual cycle begins.
 WHAT HAPPENS AFTER THE PERIOD?
 PHASES OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
1. Menstrual flow phase
- most of the endometrium is being
lost from the uterus (menstruation)
2. Proliferative phase
- involves the regeneration and
thickening of the endometrium
3. Secretory phase
- endometrium continues to develop
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 TESTES
- produces the sperm and
testosterone
- found inside the scrotum
- requires temperature < 37 ⁰C to
efficiently undergo
spermatogenesis
- composed of lobules that have
seminiferous tubules
 SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES
- sperm factories
- composed of a fluid-filled lumen
surrounded by stratified epithelial cells
 SERTOLI CELLS
- nourish developing sperm cells
 LEYDIG CELLS
- secrete testosterone
 8.Spermatids elongate and grow a tail
(flagellum) for mobility.

9. Tubules contain myoid cells composed of

smooth muscles that move sperm cells towards
the testis

10. Sperm cells reach the Rete testis and move

towards the epididymis which provides them
complete mobility and obtain mitochondria

11. During ejaculation, sperm cells move from

the epididymis towards the vas deferens

12. The vas deferens joins the seminal gland

duct to form the ejaculatory duct

13. Ejaculatory duct pass through the prostate

gland then to the urethra

SPERMATOGENESIS

1.GnRH triggers the pituitary gland to release

FSH and LH.

2.LH tells Leydig cells to secrete testosterone.

 SEMEN
- Provides the sperm additional
3.FSH tells Sertoli cells to produce androgen-
energy, nutrition, protection, and
binding protein (ABP)
mobility
4.ABP binds with testosterone. This complex
targets spermatogoniafound near the surface  SEMINAL VESICLES
of the tubules. - A major component of semen
- Secrete prostaglandins
5.Spermatogonia produces A and B types.
 PROSTAGLANDINS
6.A type remains in the surface. B undergoes - Drives the sperm cell towards the
meiosis I and II. uterus

7.After meiosis, spermatids are formed.

 PENIS
- composed of three layers of
erectile tissues wrapped with
connective tissues and smooth
muscle that fill blood during
arousal
 ERECTION – helps the penis penetrate
the vagina.
FERTILIZATION
- A sperm cell successfully fuses
with an egg cell
- A sperm can fertilize an egg
cell if and only if it is able to
release hydrolytic enzymes
that degrade the outer
protective layer of an egg cell.
- Once the sperm cell enters the
egg cell, it releases calcium
ion s to prevent any other
sperm from entering it.
- The sperm cell nucleus and
egg cell nucleus fuse to form
the zygote, and undergo
mitosis.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
 CONCEPTION
- conceiving a child (fallopian tube)
 IMPLANTATION
- zygote is attached to the
endometrium of the uterus
 GESTATION
- a baby is growing and developing
inside a mother’s womb
 The zygote undergoes meiosis and
divides.
 About 24 hours after fertilization, 1
zygote cell becomes 16 cells, called a
blastomeres.
 Days after fertilization, blastomeres
become enclosed in a sphere filled with
fluid called blastocyst. Cells inside it are
called inner cell mass, which will
become the embryo.
 After a week, the blastocyst is
implanted on the endometrium
due to the release of estrogen
and progesterone.
 PLACENTA AND UMBILICAL CORD
- formed only during pregnancy
- provides direct nourishment on the
embryo
EMBRYONIC STAGE
 The blastocyst composed of stem
cells differentiated into many
different cell types.
 Embryo forms surrounded by
amniotic fluid and connected to the
placenta
• An embryo becomes a fetus at the
end of 8th week.
• Several months passed, fetus
develops organ systems and bones.
• Pregnancy lasts for 38 to 40 weeks.
  MALE
- low sperm count (<100 million
sperm/ejaculation)
- motility of the sperm

CONTRACEPTIVE PILLS
- prevents ovulation
- thickens cervical mucus that slows
down the mobility of sperm
- Thins the uterus lining preventing the
implantation of a fertilized egg

MISCARRIAGE
- loss of baby before 20 weeks of
pregnancy
- pathogen and weak immune system
- hormonal imbalances

IRREGULAR MENSTRUAL CYCLE

- change in ovulation cycle
- hormonal imbalances
- medical condition

INFERTILITY
 FEMALE
- hormonal imbalances
- problems associated with ovulation
(irregular release of egg)
- polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)