NERVOUS SYSTEM

Cells of the Nervous System

Functions (CRIME) Neurons
1. Controlling muscles and glands.  Also called nerve cells
2. Receiving sensory input.  Receive stimuli, conduct action potentials,
3. Integrating information. transmit signals
4. Maintaining homeostasis.
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity. Cell body – contains a single nucleus; source of
information for gene expression n
Divisions of the Nervous System
I. Central Nervous System Dendrites – extensions of the cell body; receive
Brain and spinal cord information from other neurons; transmit the info toward
II. Peripheral Nervous System the neuron cell body
Nerves and ganglia
Axon – single long cell process; conduct action potentials
a. Sensory Division – afferent (toward) division; from one part of the brain or spinal cord to another part
conducts action potentials from sensory  Axon of sensory neurons – conduct action
receptors to the CNS potentials towards the CNS
• Sensory neurons – neurons that transmit action  Axon of motor neurons – conduct action
potentials from the periphery to the CNS potentials away from the CNS

i. Somatic Sensory Fibers – carry info from stimuli  Axon hillock – where the axon leaves the neuron
coming from the skin, skeletal, muscles, joints cell body

ii. Visceral Sensory Fibers – transmits impulses coming  Nissl bodies – rough ER found in the cell body of a
from neuron
the visceral organs
 Schwann cells – form a myelin sheath (increases
b. Motor Division – efferent (away) division; conducts speed of impulse transmission)
action potentials from the CNS to effector organs
• Motor neurons – neurons that transmit action  Collateral axons – branches of axons
potentials from the CNS toward the periphery
Types of Neurons
i. Somatic Motor Nervous System / 1. Multipolar neurons – many dendrites + a single axon
Voluntary – transmits action
potentials form the CNS to the skeletal muscles 2. Bipolar neurons – two processes: 1 dendrite + 1 axon

ii. Autonomic Motor Nervous System / Involuntary –
transmits action potentials from the CNS to cardiac,
smooth muscles and glands
1. Sympathetic – figth-orflight system
2. Parasympathetic – resting and digesting system
iii. Enteric Nervous System – unique subdivision; both
sensory and motor neurons contained within the digestive
tract
3. Pseudo-unipolar neurons – single process that divides
into 2 processes: extends to the periphery + extends to the
CNS
Neuroglia
 Non-neuronal cells of the CNS + PNS
 More numerous than neurons
 Retain the ability to divide
1. Astrocytes – major supporting cells in the CNS;
stimulate/inhibit the signaling activity of nearby neurons;
help limit damage to neural tissue

K I E R U L F, V. H.
  Blood brain barrier – protects neurons from toxic
substances in the blood;
allows exchange of waster products +
nutrients
2. Ependymal cells – produce cerebrospinal fluid;
help move the cerebrospinal fluid through the CNS
3. Microglia – act as immune cells of the CNS’ protect the
brain by removing bacteria and cell debris
4 – 5. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS) –
provide an insulating material that
surrounds axons
Neural Signaling
 Communication among neurons
1. Reception – stimuli received by visual receptors in the
eye
2. Transmission – sensory neurons transmit info to CNS
3. Integration – info given is interpreted and an
appropriate response is determined
4. Transmission – the CNS transmits info to motor
neurons
5. Actual response – muscle/glands receive info and
instruction from motor neurons
Myelin Sheaths
 Highly specialized insulating layer of cells
 Unmyelinated axons – action potentials are
conducted slowly because it travels along the
entire axon
 Myelinating axons – action potentials are
conducted rapidly by salutatory conduction
 Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin sheath;
where ion movement can occur
Organization of Nervous Tissue
Gray Matter – groups of neuron cell bodies + their
dendrites; very little myelin
In the CNS;
 Cortex – GM on the surface of the brain
 Nuclei – GM located deeper within the brain
In the PNS;
 Ganglion – a cluster of neuron cell
bodies
White Matter – bundles of parallel axons + myelin
sheaths
In the CNS
 Nerve tracts – conduction pathways; propagate
action potentials from one area of the CNS to
another
In the PNS;
 Nerves – bundles of axons + connective tissue
sheaths
Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
Resting Membrane Potential
Polarized cell membrane – uneven distribution of charge
Resting membrane potential – uneven charge distribution
in an unstimulated/resting cell; polarized
 Higher concentration of K+ inside CM
 Higher concentration of Na+ outside CM
 Greater permeability of CM to K+ than to Na+
Leak channels – always open
Gated channels – closed until opened by specific signals
Chemically gated channels – opened by
neurotransmitters
Voltage gated channels – opened by a change in
membrane potential
Sodium potassium pump – required to maintain the
greater concentration of Na+ outside the CM and K+
inside
Action Potentials
Excitable cells – RMP changes in response to stimuli
that activate gated ion channels
Local current – Na+ diffuses quickly into cell
Depolarization – a change that causes the inside of the
CM to become positive
Local potential – result of depolarization
Threshold value – attainable local potential (critical pt.)
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NERVOUS SYSTEM
Action potential – constitution of depolarization and  Diverging pathway – the axon from one neuron
repolarization divides and synapses with more than one other
neuron
Hyperpolarization – the charge on the CM briefly becomes  Summation – allows integration of multiple sub
more negative than the RMP threshold local potentials; brings
the membrane potential to
All-or-none fashion – threshold is reached = action threshold and trigger an action potential
potential occurs; if the threshold is not reached = action
potential doesn’t occur  Spatial summation – local potentials originate
from diff. locations on the postsynaptic neuron
Continuous conduction – the action potential is conducted
along the entire axon CM  Temporal summation – local potentials overlap in
time
Saltatory conduction – action potentials jump from one
node of Ranbier to the next
Spinalcord
The Synapse
 Extends from the foramen magnum to the 2nd
Synapse – a junction where the axon of one neuron
lumbar vertebra
interacts with another
 Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and
from the brain
 Presynaptic terminal – end of the axon
Cauda equina – inferior end of the SC; spinal nerves
 Postsynaptic membrane – membrane of the
exiting there resemble a horse’s tail
dendrite or effector cell
2 Main Functions
 Synaptic cleft – space separating the presynaptic
1. Transmits info to and from the brain.
& postsynaptic membrane
2. Controls many reflex activities of the body.

White Matter of the SC

 Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers
1. Dorsal (posterior)
Synaptic vesicles – where neurotransmitters are
2. Ventral (anterior)
stored
3. Lateral Columns
a. Ascending tracts – conduct action potentials toward
 Hyperpolarized – the inside of the postsynaptic
the brain
cell tends to become more negative
b. Descending tracts – conduct action
potentials away from the brain

Reflexes Gray Matter of the SC (shaped like the letter H)

Reflex – an involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus 1. Posterior horns
applied to the periphery and transmitted to the 2. Anterior horns
CNS 3. Small lateral horns

 Reflex arc – neuronal pathway by which a reflex
occurs
 Converging pathway – two or more neurons
synapse with the same neuron
Central canal – fluid filled space in the center of the cord
Ventral root – formed by ventral rootlets;
Dorsal root – formed by dorsal rootlets

K I E R U L F, V. H.
Dorsal root ganglion – ganglion in a dorsal root
Cranial Nerves
Relfex Action  Transmit info to the brain form the sensory
Predictable, automatic response to a specific stimulus receptors
1. Reception of the stimulus.  12 pairs
2. Transmission of info to the CNS.
3. Integration (interpretation and determination of an
appropriate response).
Name Specific Function
4. Transmission of info from the CNS to a muscle.
5. Actual response. I. Olfactory S S: smell
II. Optic S S: vision
Spinal Cord Reflexes M: 4-6 extrinsic eye
 Knee-Jerk Reflex III. Oculomotor M muscles; P: constricts
 Stretch flex – simplest reflex; muscles contract in pupils
response to a stretching force applied to them IV. Trochlear M M: 1 extrinsic eye muscle
S: face + teeth; M: muscles
 Knee-jerk reflex – patellar reflex; used to V. Trigeminal B
of mastification
determine if the higher CNS centers that normally
VI. Abducens M M: 1 extrinsic eye muscle
influence this reflex are functional
S: taste; M: facial muscles;
VII. Facial B
Withdrawal Reflex P: salivary + tear glands
 Withdrawal Reflex – flexor reflex; to remove a Acoustic /
limb VIII. Vestibulocochlear S S: hearing + balance
from a painful stimulus
S: taste + touch to back of
Glossopharyng
Ascending Tracts IX. B tongue; M: pharyngeal
-eal
 Pathways that carry impulses form the periphery muscles; P: salivary glands
to various parts of the brain Spinothalamic tract S: pharynx, larynx,
– transmits pain, light touch, and deep pressure viscera;
M: palate, pharynx,
Dorsal column – transmission of proprioception, touch, X. Vagus B
larynx;
deep pressure, vibration
P: viscera of thorax +
Spinocerebellar tracts – proprioception to cerebellum abdomen
M: 2 neck + upper back
XI. Accessory M
Descending Tracts muscles
 Pathways that carry impulses from the brain to XII. Hypoglossal M M: tongue muscles
the periphery

Lateral corticospinal – muscle tone and skilled movements

Spinal Nerves
(hand)
 Arise along the spinal cord; contains mixed nerves
 31 pairs v 8 Cervical v 12 Thoracic v 5 Lumbar
Anterior corticospinal – muscle tone and movement of
 5 Sacral
trunk muscles
 1 Coccygeal
Rubrospinal – movement coordination
Mixed nerves – contains both sensory and somatic
Reticulospinal – posture adjustment motor neurons

Vestibulospinal – posture & balance Plexuses – where nerves come together and then separate
 Cervical plexus Ø Brachial plexus
Tectospinal – movement in response to visual reflexes  Lumbosacral plexus

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NERVOUS SYSTEM
Cervical Plexus Sciatic nerve – CT sheath that bounds the tibial and
 Originates from spinal nerves C1 to C4 common fibular nerve
Autonomic Nervous System
Phrenic nerve – most important branc of the CP;  Preganglionic neuron
innervates the diaphragm (responsible for our ability to  Postganglionic neuron
breathe)  Maintain internal homeostasis

Brachial Plexus Autonomic ganglia – where preganglionic neurons synapse

 Originates from the spinal nerves C5 to T1 with postganglionic neurons

1. Axillary nerve – innervates 2 shoulder muscles I. Sympathetic ANS

+ the skin over part of it  ‘Fight-or-flight’
 Prepares the body for action
2. Median nerve – innervates the anterior forearm and  Most active during stressful situations
intrinsic muscles  Norepinephrine (main neurotransmitter)
II. Parasympathetic ANS
3. Radial nerve – innervates all the muscles in the  Activities result in conserving and restoring
posterior arm and forearm + skin over the posterior energy
surface of the arm, forearm, hand
 Helps return the body to resting conditions
 Active during periods of calm and rest
4. Musculocutaneous nerve – innervates the anterior
 PS fibers are in the vagus nerve
muscles of the arm + skin over the
radial surface of the forearm
Autonomic Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine – neurotransmitters of the
5. Ulnar nerve – innervates most of the anterior forearm
parasympathetic division
muscles and some of the intrinsic hand
muscles + skin over the radial side of the hand
Norepinephrine – postganglionic neurons of the
sympathetic division
Lumbosacral Plexus
 Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Division
1. Obturator nerve – innervates the muscles of the
 Prepares a person for action by increasing HR, BP,
medial thigh + skin over it
respiration, release of glucose
2. Femoral nerve – innervates the anterior thigh muscles
Parasympathetic Division
+ skin over it & medial side of the leg
 Involuntary activities at rest: digestion of food,
defecation, urination
3. Tibial nerve – innervates the posterior thigh muscles,
the anterior & posterior leg muscles, most of the intrinsic
foot muscles + skin over the Enteric Nervous System
sole of the foot  Consists of plexus within the wall of the digestive
tract
4. Common fibular nerve – innervates the muscles of the
lateral thigh & leg, some intrinsic foot muscles + skin over 1. Sensory neurons – connect the digestive tract to the
the anterior & lateral leg, CNS
dorsal surface of the foot 2. Sympathetic & parasympathetic neurons – connect
the CNS to the digestive tract

K I E R U L F, V. H.
3. Enteric neurons – located entirely within enteric
plexus  Reticular activating system – plays an important
 Capable of monitoring and controlling the role in arousing and maintaining consciousness
digestive tract independently of the CNS

 Soft, wrinkled mass of tissue that is highly II. Diencephalon

complex and adaptive; 3 pounds  Part bet. the brainstem and the cerebrum
 billion neurons
 Requires a continuous supply of oxygen and 1. Thalamus
glucose  Largest part of the diencephalon
 Major relay center for all sensory info (except smell) to
I. Brainstem the cerebrum; plays a gating rol
 Connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the  Influences mood and registers an uncomfortable
brain perception of pain
 Controls the heart rate, blood pressure, and  Interthalamic adhesion – connects the two large,
breathing lateral parts of the thalamus
 Damage can cause death
Brain
1. Medulla Oblongata 2. Epithalamus
 Most inferior portion of the brainstem  Smallest area superior + posterior to the thalamus
 Important reflex actions like vomiting, sneezing,  Consists of few small nuclei (emotional and
coughing, swallowing visceral response to odors) + pineal gland
 Gray matter consists of various nuclei that serve
as vital centers Pineal gland – an endocrine gland that may influence the
 Cardiac centers – control HR onset of puberty; role in controlling some long term
 Vasomotor centers – regulates BP bu controlling cycles
blood vessel diameter
3. Hypothalamus
 Respiratory centers – initiates and regulates  Most inferior part
breathing Consists of several small nuclei; maintaining
 Pyramids – two prominent enalargements homeostasis
 Control of body temp., hunger, and thirst
2. Pons (bridge)  Sensations such as sexual pleasure, rage, fear, and
 Relay information bet. the cerebrum and the relaxation
cerebellum
 Resembles an arched footbridge Important Homeostatic Mechanisms
 Regulates respiration, swallowing, sleep 1. Control center of the ANS.
2. The link bet. the nervous and endocrine systems.
3. Midbrain 3. Helps maintain fluid balance.
 Smallest region of the brainstem  Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) – regulates water
 mounds called the colliculi excretion by the kidneys
 2 inferior; major relay centers for the auditory 4. Regulates body temperature.
nerve pathways in the CNS 5. Regulates food intake (appetite and satiety centers).
 2 superior; visual reflexes and receive touch and 6. Regulates sleep-wake cycles.
auditory input 7. Influences sexual behavior and emotional aspects of
sensory input.
4. Reticular Formation
 A group of nuclei scattered throughout the Infundibulum – controlling the secretion of hormones
brainstem from the pituitary gland
 Regulating cyclical motor functions; respiration,
walking, chewing Mammillary bodies – involved in emotional responses to
 Damage can result in coma odors and in memory

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NERVOUS SYSTEM
4. Temporal Lobe
III. Cerebellum  Primary auditory area – center for reception
 Second largest part of the brain; 2 hemispheres of auditory messages
Responsible for coordination of movements Auditory association area – where auditory
 Comparator – a sensing device that compares messages are integrated
data from two sources  Psychic cortex – abstract thoughts
 Proprioceptive neurons – innervate joints, and judgments
tendons, muscles; provide info about the position
of body parts Gyri – folds and convolutions; increase the surface area
of the cortex and intervening grooves (sulci)
1. Helps in smooth and coordinated body movements
(comparator function). Sulci – shallow grooves
2. Maintains muscle tone posture.
3. Maintain balance and equilibrium Fissures – deep groves
4. Important in learning motor skills.
Longitudinal fissure – divides the cerebrum into left and
IV. Cerebrum right hemispheres
 Largest and most prominent part of the brain
Cerebral cortex – outermost layer of the cerebrum;
1. Sensory Function – receives info from sensory consists of gray matter
receptors and interprets it
2. Motor Function – responsible for all voluntary Corpus callosum – connects the right and left
movement and some involuntary ones hemispheres
3. Association Function – responsible for all of the
intellectual activities of brain Central sulcus – separates the frontal and parietal lobes

Lateral fissure – separates the temporal love from the rest

4 Lobes
1. Frontal Lobe
 Control of voluntary motor functions, motivation,
aggression, mood, olfactory reception
 Primary motor area: consciously move our
skeletal muscles
 Broca’s area – speech center
 Prefrontal area – responsible for executive
functions
2. Parietal Lobe
 General Sensory Area – receives info from the
sensory receptors in the skin and joints
 Wernicke’s area – sensory speech area
Insula – fifth lobe; deep within the fissure
Basal Nuclei
 Group of functionally related nuclei
Corpus striatum – located deep within the cerebrum
Substantia nigra – darkly pigmented cells in the
midbrain
Right and Left Hemispheres
Right hemisphere – three dimensional or spatial
perception, musical ability

3. Occipital Lobe Left Hemisphere – analytical hemisphere; mathematics

 Receiving and perceiving visual input and speech
 Primary visual area – receives visual info
 Visual association area – portion where visual info Memory
is integrated Working memory – stores info required for the immediate
performance of a task; 7-digit phone no.

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Short-term memory – last longer; can be retained for a few
mins. to a few days
Long-term memory – stored for only a few minutes or
become permanent by consolidation
Consolidation – a gradual process involving the
formation of new and stronger synaptic connections
Declarative memory – explicit memory; retains facts and
related emotional undertones
Procedural memory – reflexive memory; development of
motor skills
Memory engrams – memory traces; long-term retention of
a thought/idea
Limbic System
 group of interconnected nuclei involved in
memory and regulation of emotion
Hippocampus – formation and retrieval of memories
Amygdala – filter sensory info and evaluates it in terms of
emotional needs
Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
Meninges
 Surround and protect the brain and spinal
cord
1. Dura mater – most superficial and thickest meninges
 Epidural space – bet. the dura mater & the
vertebrae
 Epidural anesthesia – clinically
important as the injection site of spinal
nerves; given to women during
childbirth
2. Arachnoid mater – thin, wispy, 2nd meningeal
membrane
 Subdural space – space bet. the dura mater and
the arachnoid mater; contains small amt. of
serous fluid
 Spinal block – to inject anesthetic into the area
 Spinal tap – to take a sample of CSF
3. Pia mater – 3rd meningeal membrane; very tightly
bound to the surface of the brain and spinal cord; filled
with CSF and contains blood vessels
 Subarachnoid space – bet. the arachnoid and pia
matter
Ventricles
Fluid filled cavities
Lateral ventricle – relatively large cavity in each cerebral
hemisphere
Third ventricle – a smaller, midline cavity
Fourth ventricle – located at the base of the cerebellum
Cerebral aqueduct – a narrow canal that connects the 3rd
and 4th ventricle
Cerebrospinal fluid
Provides a protective cushion around the CNS
Choroid plexus – produces CSF; specialized structures
made of ependymal cells
Arachnoid villi – structures that project from the
arachnoid layer; where blood is reabsorbed
Hydrocephalus – accumulation of CSF in the ventricles
Motor Functions
Involuntary movements – occur without a conscious
thought
Voluntary movements – consciously activated to
achieve a specific goal; walking, typing
Upper motor neurons – have cell bodies in the cerebral
cortex
Lower motor neurons – have cell bodies in the anterior
horn
Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
Primary motor cortex – control voluntary movements of
skeletal muscles
Premotor area – where motor functions are organized
before they are actually initiated in the primary motor
cortex
Pre-frontal area – where planning and initiating
movements occur
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NERVOUS SYSTEM
Other Brain Functions
Communication between the Right & Left Hemispheres

Commissures – connection bet. the two hemispheres

Corpus callosum – largest commissure

Speech
Sensory speech area – Wernicke area; a portion of the
parietal lobe

Motor speech area – Broca area; inferior portion of the

frontal lobe

Aphasia – absent/defective speech/language

comprehension

Brain Waves and Consciousness

Electroencephalogram (EEG) -

Brain waves – wave like patterns

Alpha waves – awake but in a quiet, resting state with eyes

close

Beta waves – occur during intense mental activity

Delta waves – occur during deep sleep in infants and in

patients

Theta waves – observed in children; also in adults who

are frustrated or have brain disorders

Effects of Aging on the Nervous System

 Motor functions decline
 Mental functions (memory) decline

GOOD LUCK!!!

K I E R U L F, V. H.