Chromosomes and

Cell Division
The Chromosomal Basis of Heredity
 The Cell
- Discovery of the Cell
- Cell Theory
- General features of a typical cell
- Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
 Chromosomes: the sites of hereditary information
- Chromosome structure

 Cell Division
- Cell Cycle
- Mitosis
- Meiosis
Early Microscopist

 Hans and Zaccharias Janssen

- produced the first compound microscope (2 lens)

 Robert Hooke (1665)

- looked at thin slice of cork using compound microscope
- observed tiny, hollow, room-like structures (cells)

 Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1680)

- observed blood, rainwater, scrapings from teeth
with simple microscope (1 lens)
- observed living cells (animalcules)
Early Microscopist

 Matthias Schleiden (1838)

- plant parts are made up of cells

 Theodor Schwann (1839)

- animal parts are made up of cells

 Rudolph Virchow (1855)

- all living cells come from other living cells
Cell Theory
 The cell is the basic unit of life

 Every living thing is made of cells

 Every cell comes from pre-existing cells

All organisms are made up of one or more

cells, within which the life process of
metabolism and heredity occur.
- unit of structure
- unit of function
- unit of heredity
- unit of development
Three features found in all cells

 Cell
membrane
- phospholipid
layer
- semi-permeable
 Cytoplasm
- complex collection of substances in water based solution
- where membrane bound organelles are dispersed

 DNA
- genetic material
Prokaryotic Cells

Bacterial cell Cyanobacteria

Eukaryotic Cells

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Differences between
prokayotic and
eukaryotic cells
Chromosomes:
the sites of
hereditary
information
Chromosomes
 visible state of genetic material during a
phase of the division of the cell (metaphase)
 genetic materials found
inside the nucleus

 made of protein and DNA

 exists in pairs in somatic

cells (homologues)

 each kind of organism has

a specific number of
chromosomes
 Diploid
Common Name Genus and Species Chromosome
Number
Buffalo Bison bison 60
Cat Felis catus 38
Bos taurus,
Cattle 60
B. indicus
Dog Canis familiaris 78
Donkey E. asinus 62
Goat Capra hircus 60
Horse Equus caballus 64
Human Homo sapiens 46
Pig Sus scrofa 38
Sheep Ovis aries 54
male karyotype female karyotype
chromosome fiber

chromatid

centromere
 The Secret to Eternal Youth and Immortality

 Six-year-old Sarah Rodler with Jeanne Calment, the oldest

a condition known as progeria person in the world
aged
Carol Guzy TheWashingtonPost 122 on Feb 21,1997
 Different types of chromosomes
based on the centromere position

Giemsa stained metaphase

chromosomes showing
heterochromatin (light band) and
euchromatin (dark band)
Chromosome
organization
chromosomes carries a
lot of genes

- short length of DNA

- controls inherited
character of the organism
Prokaryotic chromosome
– DNA usually single, double stranded

nucleoid
Nucleoid

E. coli: 4,300 kbp (4.3

Mbp) = 1,100 µm
The Cell Cycle
EVENTS OF EUCARYOTIC
CELL DIVISION
cytoplasmic
nuclear division
division
 THE CELL CYCLE PHASES
Interphase
a. G1 (gap 1)
- growth and preparation for division
b. S (synthesis)
- DNA synthesis
c. G2 (gap 2)
- preparation for mitosis

M Phase
- cells segregate chromosomes
- cells divide
 THE CELL CYCLE PHASES
a. G1 (gap 1)
- growth and preparation for division
b. S (synthesis)
- DNA synthesis
c. G2 (gap 2)
- preparation for mitosis
d. M (mitosis)
- cell segregate chromosomes and divide
e. G0 (G zero)
- quiescent stage
- non growing phase out of cell cycle,
usually linked to G1
 The Cell Division
 Mitosis
- equational division
- genetic and chromosome composition is
faithfully reproduced in each daughter cells
- 2n  2n

 Meiosis
- reductional division
- chromosome number is reduced to half its
usual number
- 2n  n
Mitosis
 Prophase
- signaled by the ordered
compaction or condensation
of chromosomes into
microscopically visible
threads

- microtubules radiating from

the two centrosomes
collectively compose the
mitotic spindle
Mitosis
 Prometaphase
- chromosomes have
condensed further
- centrosomes have
migrated to opposite sides
of the cell
- disintegration of nuclear
membrane allowed
microtubules to bind to each
chromosome at a region
within its centromere
Mitosis
 Metaphase
- chromosomes assumed
their most condensed
configuration
- sister-chromatid pairs
have assumed the
familiar X shape
- microtubules radiating
from both centrosomes

- sister chromatid pair has

become aligned along the
midplane of the cell
Mitosis
 Anaphase
- bond joining each sister
chromatid pair has broken

- sister chromatids have

begun moving toward
opposite sides of the cell

- cell has began to elongate

and narrow at the midplane
Mitosis
 Telophase
- nuclear membrane formed
around each segregated set
of chromosomes

- chromosomes begun to
decondense

- cell has began to divide

M
I
T
O
S
I
S
Genetic Importance of Mitosis
a. basis of growth and tissue repair in
multicellular eukaryotes

b. means of asexual reproduction in single-

celled eukaryotes

c. maintains the identical genetic content of

a cell from generation to generation
 Consequences of Mitosis
a. both genes and chromosomes are capable
of mutation and are subsequently involved
in replicating their new form

b. gene retains its individuality regardless

the nature of its allele
- chromosomes hold the same relative position at late
anaphase to telophase as they enter the next
prophase

- parts of chromosome associated with the nucleolus

remain associated during the interval

- homologues that have mutated retain their separate

difference, mitosis after mitosis
 Meiosis
 Meiosis I

 Meiosis II
 Prophase I Meiosis
- Leptotene stage
- Zygotene stage
- Pachytene stage
- Diplotene stage
- Diakinesis stage
Prophase I
 Leptotene Stage
- the chromosomes
begin to condense and
become visible

- homologous pair
searching begins also at
this stage.
Prophase I
 Zygotene Stage
- chromosomes continue to
become denser
- homologous pairs have also
found each other and begin to
initially align with one another,
referred to as 'rough pairing'
- Lateral elements also form
between the two homologous
pairs, forming a synaptonemal
complex
Prophase I
 Pachytene Stage
- coiling and shortening
continues as the chromosomes
become more condense

- a synapsis forms between the

pairs, forming a tetrad
Prophase I
 Diplotene Stage
- the sister chromatids begin to
separate slightly, revealing
points of the chiasma

- chiasma is where genetic

exchange occurs between two
non-sister chromatids, a process
known as crossing over
Prophase I
 Diakinesis Stage
- chromosomes continue to pull apart,
but non-sister chromatids are still
loosely associated via the chiasma.

- chiasma begin to move toward the

ends of the tetrad as separation
continues( terminalization)

- nuclear envelope breaks down

and the spindle fibers begin to
interact with the tetrad.
Metaphase I
- each chromosome has reached its
maximum density

- homologous pairs and their sister

chromatids prepare for separation
and interact with spindle fibers which
form from either side of the nuclear
envelope of the cell.

- chromosomes are lined by the

spindle fibers at metaphase plate
Anaphase I
- anaphase I pulls apart the
tetrad, separating each
homologous chromosome
Telophase I

- two nuclear envelopes begin

to surround the separate
chromosomes

- cytokinesis occur

- interkinesis will follow but no DNA

replication will occur
Prophase II

- each dyad is composed of a

pair of sister chromatids and
connected by a centromere

- centrioles start to move

toward the poles of the cell
Metaphase II

- similar to Metaphase I in
that the dyads are lined up at
a metaphase plate by the
spindle fibers.
Anaphase II
- separates the dyads into
individual chromatids

- each sister chromatid ends

up on one side of the cell.
Telophase II
- nuclear envelopes forms around
each set of DNA and the
cytoplasm divides once again

- four haploid cells have formed

from one diploid cell
M
E
I
O
S
I
S
Genetic Importance of Meiosis

a. produce genetic variation

- crossing over between homologues chromosomes

(prophase I)

- independent assortment of chromosomes

(metaphase I)
 Consequences of Meiosis
a. makes possible conservation of the chromosome
number from generation to generation
b. each paternal and maternal chromosome has
equal chance of being located at one or the other
daughter nucleus
c. each of the daughter cells contains
representative of each pair of chromosomes, thus
provides physical basis for segregation of genes

d. crossing over between non sister chromatids

produces different kinds of gametes thus genetic
combinations and recombinations is infinite