Cells of the Nervous System
Nervous System
Functions (CRIME)
1. Controlling muscles and glands.
2. Receiving sensory input.
3. Integrating information.
4. Maintaining homeostasis.
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity.
Divisions of the Nervous System
I. Central Nervous System
§ Brain and spinal cord
II. Peripheral Nervous System
§ Nerves and ganglia
a. Sensory Division – afferent (toward)
division; conducts action potentials
from sensory receptors to the CNS
• Sensory neurons – neurons
that transmit action potentials
from the periphery to the CNS
i. Somatic Sensory Fibers – carry
info from stimuli coming from
the skin, skeletal, muscles,
joints
ii. Visceral Sensory Fibers –
transmits impulses coming from
the visceral organs
b. Motor Division – efferent (away)
division; conducts action potentials
from the CNS to effector organs
• Motor neurons – neurons that
transmit action potentials
from the CNS toward the
periphery
i. Somatic Motor Nervous
System / Voluntary – divides into 2 processes: extends to the
transmits action potentials
form the CNS to the skeletal
muscles
ii. Autonomic Motor Nervous
System / Involuntary –
transmits action potentials
from the CNS to cardiac,
smooth muscles and glands
1. Sympathetic – figth-or-
flight system
2. Parasympathetic – toxic substances in the blood; allows
resting and digesting
system
iii. Enteric Nervous System –
unique subdivision; both
sensory and motor neurons
contained within the digestive
tract
Neurons
§ Also called nerve cells
§ Receive stimuli, conduct action potentials,
transmit signals
Cell body – contains a single nucleus; source of
information for gene expression n
Dendrites – extensions of the cell body; receive
information from other neurons; transmit the info
toward the neuron cell body
Axon – single long cell process; conduct action
potentials from one part of the brain or spinal cord to
another part
Ø Axon of sensory neurons – conduct action
potentials towards the CNS
Ø Axon of motor neurons – conduct action
potentials away from the CNS
Axon hillock – where the axon leaves the neuron cell
body
Nissl bodies – rough ER found in the cell body of a
neuron
Schwann cells – form a myelin sheath (increases speed
of impulse transmission)
Collateral axons – branches of axons
Types of Neurons
1. Multipolar neurons – many dendrites + a single
axon
2. Bipolar neurons – two processes: 1 dendrite + 1
axon
3. Pseudo-unipolar neurons – single process that
periphery + extends to the CNS
Neuroglia
§ Non-neuronal cells of the CNS + PNS
§ More numerous than neurons
§ Retain the ability to divide
1. Astrocytes – major supporting cells in the CNS;
stimulate/inhibit the signaling activity of nearby
neurons; help limit damage to neural tissue
v Blood brain barrier – protects neurons from
exchange of waster products + nutrients
2. Ependymal cells – produce cerebrospinal fluid;
help move the cerebrospinal fluid through the CNS
3. Microglia – act as immune cells of the CNS’
protect the brain by removing bacteria and cell
debris
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 4 – 5. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells
(PNS) – provide an insulating material that
surrounds axons
Neural Signaling
§ Communication among neurons
1. Reception – stimuli received by visual receptors
in the eye
2. Transmission – sensory neurons transmit info to
CNS
3. Integration – info given is interpreted and an
appropriate response is determined
4. Transmission – the CNS transmits info to motor
neurons
5. Actual response – muscle/glands receive info
and instruction from motor neurons
Myelin Sheaths
§ Highly specialized insulating layer of cells
Unmyelinated axons – action potentials are conducted
slowly bcos in travels along the entire axon
Myelinating axons – action potentials are conducted
rapidly by salutatory conduction
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin sheath; where
ion movement can occur
Organization of Nervous Tissue
Gray Matter – groups of neuron cell bodies + their
dendrites; very little myelin
Ø In the CNS;
v Cortex – GM on the surface of the brain
v Nuclei – GM located deeper within the
brain
Ø In the PNS;
v Ganglion – a cluster of neuron cell
bodies
White Matter – bundles of parallel axons + myelin
sheaths
Ø In the CNS
v Nerve tracts – conduction pathways;
propagate action potentials from one
area of the CNS to another
Ø In the PNS;
v Nerves – bundles of axons + connective
tissue sheaths
Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
Resting Membrane Potential
Polarized cell membrane – uneven distribution of
charge
Resting membrane potential – uneven charge
distribution in an unstimulated/resting cell; polarized
Ø Higher concentration of K+ inside CM
Ø Higher concentration of Na+ outside CM
Ø Greater permeability of CM to K+ than to Na+
Leak channels – always open
Gated channels – closed until opened by specific signals
Chemically gated channels – opened by
neurotransmitters
Voltage gated channels – opened by a change in
membrane potential
Sodium potassium pump – required to maintain the
greater concentration of Na+ outside the CM and K+
inside
Action Potentials
Excitable cells – RMP changes in response to stimuli
that activate gated ion channels
Local current – Na+ diffuses quickly into cell
Depolarization – a change that causes the inside of the
CM to become positive
Local potential – result of depolarization
Threshold value – attainable local potential (critical pt.)
Action potential – constitution of depolarization and
repolarization
Hyperpolarization – the charge on the CM briefly
becomes more negative than the RMP
All-or-none fashion – threshold is reached = action
potential occurs; if the threshold is not reached = action
potential doesn’t occur
Continuous conduction – the action potential is
conducted along the entire axon CM
Saltatory conduction – action potentials jump from one
node of Ranbier to the next
The Synapse
Synapse – a junction where the axon of one neuron
interacts with another
Presynaptic terminal – end of the axon
Postsynaptic membrane – membrane of the dendrite or
effector cell
Synaptic cleft – space separating the presynaptic &
postsynaptic membrane
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Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers

Synaptic vesicles – where neurotransmitters are stored

Hyperpolarized – the inside of the postsynaptic cell

tends to become more negative

Substance Effect Clinical Example

Acetylcholine Excitatory or Alzheimer disease
inhibitory
Norepinephrine Excitatory Cocaine and
amphetamines
Serotonin Generally Mood, anxiety, and
inhibitory sleep induction
Dopamine Excitatory or Parkinson disease
inhibitory
Gamma- Inhibitory Treatment of
aminobutyric epilepsy
acid
Glycine Inhibitory Poison strychnine
Endorphins Inhibitory Opiates morphine
and heroin

Reflexes
Reflex – an involuntary reaction in response to a
stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the
CNS

Reflex arc – neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs

Ø Sensory receptor
Ø Sensory neuron
Ø Interneurons
Ø Motor neuron
Ø Effector organ (muscle or glands)

Neuronal Pathways
Converging pathway – two or more neurons synapse
with the same neuron

Diverging pathway – the axon from one neuron divides

and synapses with more than one other neuron

Summation – allows integration of multiple sub

threshold local potentials; brings the membrane
potential to threshold and trigger an action potential

Spatial summation – local potentials originate from diff.

locations on the postsynaptic neuron

Temporal summation – local potentials overlap in time

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 Spinothalamic tract – transmits pain, light touch, and
Spinal cord deep pressure
§ Extends from the foramen magnum to the 2nd
lumbar vertebra Dorsal column – transmission of proprioception, touch,
§ Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and deep pressure, vibration
from the brain
Spinocerebellar tracts – proprioception to cerebellum
Cauda equina – inferior end of the SC; spinal nerves
exiting there resemble a horse’s tail Descending Tracts
§ Pathways that carry impulses from the brain to
2 Main Functions the periphery
1. Transmits info to and from the brain.
2. Controls many reflex activities of the body. Lateral corticospinal – muscle tone and skilled
movements (hand)
White Matter of the SC
1. Dorsal (posterior) Anterior corticospinal – muscle tone and movement of
2. Ventral (anterior) trunk muscles
3. Lateral Columns
a. Ascending tracts – conduct action Rubrospinal – movement coordination
potentials toward the brain
b. Descending tracts – conduct action Reticulospinal – posture adjustment
potentials away from the brain
Vestibulospinal – posture & balance
Gray Matter of the SC (shaped like the letter H)
1. Posterior horns Tectospinal – movement in response to visual reflexes
2. Anterior horns
3. Small lateral horns Cranial Nerves
§ Transmit info to the brain form the sensory
Central canal – fluid filled space in the center of the cord receptors
§ 12 pairs
Ventral root – formed by ventral rootlets;
Name Specific Function
Dorsal root – formed by dorsal rootlets I. Olfactory S S: smell
II. Optic S S: vision
Dorsal root ganglion – ganglion in a dorsal root M: 4-6 extrinsic eye
III. Oculomotor M muscles; P: constricts
Relfex Action pupils
§ Predictable, automatic response to a specific IV. Trochlear M M: 1 extrinsic eye muscle
stimulus S: face + teeth; M: muscles
V. Trigeminal B
of mastification
1. Reception of the stimulus. VI. Abducens M M: 1 extrinsic eye muscle
2. Transmission of info to the CNS. S: taste; M: facial muscles;
3. Integration (interpretation and determination of VII. Facial B
P: salivary + tear glands
an appropriate response). Acoustic /
4. Transmission of info from the CNS to a muscle. VIII. Vestibulococh- S S: hearing + balance
5. Actual response. lear
S: taste + touch to back of
Spinal Cord Reflexes Glossopharyng
IX. B tongue; M: pharyngeal
Knee-Jerk Reflex -eal
muscles; P: salivary glands
Stretch flex – simplest reflex; muscles contract in S: pharynx, larynx, viscera;
response to a stretching force applied to them M: palate, pharynx, larynx;
X. Vagus B
P: viscera of thorax +
Knee-jerk reflex – patellar reflex; used to determine if abdomen
the higher CNS centers that normally influence this M: 2 neck + upper back
reflex are functional XI. Accessory M
muscles
XII. Hypoglossal M M: tongue muscles
Withdrawal Reflex
Withdrawal Reflex – flexor reflex; to remove a limb Spinal Nerves
from a painful stimulus
§ Arise along the spinal cord; contains mixed
nerves
Ascending Tracts
§ 31 pairs
§ Pathways that carry impulses form the
periphery to various parts of the brain v 8 Cervical
v 12 Thoracic
v 5 Lumbar

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 v 5 Sacral Autonomic Nervous System
v 1 Coccygeal § Preganglionic neuron
§ Postganglionic neuron
Mixed nerves – contains both sensory and somatic § Maintain internal homeostasis
motor neurons
Autonomic ganglia – where preganglionic neurons
Plexuses – where nerves come together and then synapse with postganglionic neurons
separate
Ø Cervical plexus I. Sympathetic ANS
Ø Brachial plexus § ‘Fight-or-flight’
Ø Lumbosacral plexus § Prepares the body for action
§ Most active during stressful situations
Cervical Plexus § Norepinephrine (main neurotransmitter)
§ Originates from spinal nerves C1 to C4
II. Parasympathetic ANS
Phrenic nerve – most important branc of the CP; § Activities result in conserving and restoring
innervates the diaphragm (responsible for our ability to energy
breathe) § Helps return the body to resting conditions
§ Active during periods of calm and rest
Brachial Plexus § PS fibers are in the vagus nerve
§ Originates from the spinal nerves C5 to T1
Autonomic Neurotransmitters
1. Axillary nerve – innervates 2 shoulder muscles Acetylcholine – neurotransmitters of the
+ the skin over part of it parasympathetic division
2. Median nerve – innervates the anterior forearm Norepinephrine – postganglionic neurons of the
and intrinsic muscles sympathetic division
3. Radial nerve – innervates all the muscles in the Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
posterior arm and forearm + skin over the Sympathetic Division
posterior surface of the arm, forearm, hand § Prepares a person for action by increasing HR,
BP, respiration, release of glucose
4. Musculocutaneous nerve – innervates the
anterior muscles of the arm + skin over the Parasympathetic Division
radial surface of the forearm § Involuntary activities at rest: digestion of food,
defecation, urination
5. Ulnar nerve – innervates most of the anterior
forearm muscles and some of the intrinsic hand Enteric Nervous System
muscles + skin over the radial side of the hand
§ Consists of plexus within the wall of the
digestive tract
Lumbosacral Plexus
§ Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4 1. Sensory neurons – connect the digestive tract to
the CNS
1. Obturator nerve – innervates the muscles of the 2. Sympathetic & parasympathetic neurons –
medial thigh + skin over it connect the CNS to the digestive tract
3. Enteric neurons – located entirely within enteric
2. Femoral nerve – innervates the anterior thigh plexus
muscles + skin over it & medial side of the leg
v Capable of monitoring and controlling
the digestive tract independently of the
3. Tibial nerve – innervates the posterior thigh
CNS
muscles, the anterior & posterior leg muscles,
most of the intrinsic foot muscles + skin over the
sole of the foot

4. Common fibular nerve – innervates the muscles

of the lateral thigh & leg, some intrinsic foot
muscles + skin over the anterior & lateral leg,
dorsal surface of the foot

Sciatic nerve – CT sheath that bounds the tibial and

common fibular nerve

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 2. Epithalamus
Brain § Smallest area superior + posterior to the
§ Soft, wrinkled mass of tissue that is highly thalamus
complex and adaptive; 3 pounds § Consists of few small nuclei (emotional and
§ 25 billion neurons visceral response to odors) + pineal gland
§ Requires a continuous supply of oxygen and
glucose Pineal gland – an endocrine gland that may influence
the onset of puberty; role in controlling some long term
I. Brainstem cycles
§ Connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the
brain 3. Hypothalamus
§ Controls the heart rate, blood pressure, and § Most inferior part
breathing § Consists of several small nuclei; maintaining
§ Damage can cause death homeostasis
§ Control of body temp., hunger, and thirst
1. Medulla Oblongata § Sensations such as sexual pleasure, rage, fear,
§ Most inferior portion of the brainstem and relaxation
§ Important reflex actions like vomiting, sneezing,
coughing, swallowing Important Homeostatic Mechanisms
§ Gray matter consists of various nuclei that serve 1. Control center of the ANS.
as vital centers 2. The link bet. the nervous and endocrine
systems.
v Cardiac centers – control HR
3. Helps maintain fluid balance.
v Vasomotor centers – regulates BP bu
controlling blood vessel diameter v Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) –
regulates water excretion by the kidneys
v Respiratory centers – initiates and
4. Regulates body temperature.
regulates breathing
5. Regulates food intake (appetite and satiety
§ Pyramids – two prominent enalargements centers).
6. Regulates sleep-wake cycles.
2. Pons (bridge) 7. Influences sexual behavior and emotional
§ Relay information bet. the cerebrum and the aspects of sensory input.
cerebellum
§ Resembles an arched footbridge Infundibulum – controlling the secretion of hormones
§ Regulates respiration, swallowing, sleep from the pituitary gland

3. Midbrain Mammillary bodies – involved in emotional responses

§ Smallest region of the brainstem to odors and in memory
§ 4 mounds called the colliculi
v 2 inferior; major relay centers for the III. Cerebellum
auditory nerve pathways in the CNS § Second largest part of the brain; 2 hemispheres
v 2 superior; visual reflexes and receive § Responsible for coordination of movements
touch and auditory input § Comparator – a sensing device that compares
data from two sources
4. Reticular Formation § Proprioceptive neurons – innervate joints,
§ A group of nuclei scattered throughout the tendons, muscles; provide info about the
brainstem position of body parts
§ Regulating cyclical motor functions; respiration,
walking, chewing 1. Helps in smooth and coordinated body
§ Damage can result in coma movements (comparator function).
§ Reticular activating system – plays an 2. Maintains muscle tone posture.
important role in arousing and maintaining 3. Maintain balance and equilibrium
consciousness 4. Important in learning motor skills.

II. Diencephalon IV. Cerebrum

§ Part bet. the brainstem and the cerebrum § Largest and most prominent part of the brain

1. Thalamus 1. Sensory Function – receives info from sensory

§ Largest part of the diencephalon
§ Major relay center for all sensory info (except
smell) to the cerebrum; plays a gating rol
§ Influences mood and registers an uncomfortable
perception of pain
§ Interthalamic adhesion – connects the two
large, lateral parts of the thalamus
receptors and interprets it
2. Motor Function – responsible for all voluntary
movement and some involuntary ones
3. Association Function – responsible for all of the
intellectual activities of brain

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4 Lobes Right and Left Hemispheres
1. Frontal Lobe Right hemisphere – three dimensional or spatial
§ Control of voluntary motor functions, perception, musical ability
motivation, aggression, mood, olfactory
reception Left Hemisphere – analytical hemisphere; mathematics
§ Primary motor area: consciously move our and speech
skeletal muscles
§ Broca’s area – speech center Memory
§ Prefrontal area – reposible for executive Working memory – stores info required for the
functions immediate performance of a task; 7 digit phone no.

2. Parietal Lobe Short-term memory – last longer; can be retained for a

§ General Sensory Area – receives info from the few mins. to a few days
sensory receptors in the skin and joints
§ Wernicke’s area – sensory speech area Long-term memory – stored for only a few minutes or
become permanent by consolidation
3. Occipital Lobe
Consolidation – a gradual process involving the
§ Receiving and perceiving visual input
formation of new and stronger synaptic connections
§ Primary visual area – receives visual info
§ Visual association area – portion where visual Declarative memory – explicit memory; retains facts and
info is integrated related emotional undertones
4. Temporal Lobe Procedural memory – reflexive memory; development
§ Primary auditory area – center for reception of of motor skills
auditory messages
§ Auditory association area – where auditory Memory engrams – memory traces; long-term retention
messages are integrated of a thought/idea
§ Psychic cortex – abstract thoughts and
judgments Limbic System
§ A group of interconnected nuclei involved in
Gyri – folds and convolutions; increase the surface area memory and regulation of emotion
of the cortex and intervening grooves (sulci)
Hippocampus – formation and retrieval of memories
Sulci – shallow grooves
Amygdala – filter sensory info and evaluates it in terms
Fissures – deep groves of emotional needs
Longitudinal fissure – divides the cerebrum into left Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
and right hemispheres Meninges
§ Surround and protect the brain and spinal cord
Cerebral cortex – outermost layer of the cerebrum;
consists of gray matter 1. Dura mater – most superficial and thickest
meninges
Corpus callosum – connects the right and left v Epidural space – bet. the dura mater &
hemispheres the vertebrae
v Epidural anesthesia – clinically
Central sulcus – separates the frontal and parietal lobes important as the injection site of spinal
nerves; given to women during
Lateral fissure – separates the temporal love from the
childbirth
rest
2. Arachnoid mater – thin, wispy, 2nd meningeal
Insula – fifth lobe; deep within the fissure membrane
v Subdural space – space bet. the dura
Basal Nuclei
mater and the arachnoid mater; contains
§ Group of functionally related nuclei small amt. of serous fluid
v Spinal block – to inject anesthetic into
Corpus striatum – located deep within the cerebrum
the area
Substantia nigra – darkly pigmented cells in the v Spinal tap – to take a sample of CSF
midbrain
3. Pia mater – 3rd meningeal membrane; very
tightly bound to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord; filled with CSF and contains blood
vessels

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 v Subarachnoid space – bet. the Aphasia – absent/defective speech/language
arachnoid and pia matter comprehension

Ventricles Brain Waves and Consciousness

§ Fluid filled cavities Electroencephalogram (EEG) -

Lateral ventricle – relatively large cavity in each cerebral Brain waves – wave like patterns
hemisphere
Alpha waves – awake but in a quiet, resting state with
Third ventricle – a smaller, midline cavity eyes close

Fourth ventricle – located at the base of the cerebellum Beta waves – occur during intense mental activity

Cerebral aqueduct – a narrow canal that connects the 3rd Delta waves – occur during deep sleep in infants and in
and 4th ventricle patients

Cerebrospinal fluid Theta waves – observed in children; also in adults who

§ Provides a protective cushion around the CNS are frustrated or have brain disorders

Choroid plexus – produces CSF; specialized structures
made of ependymal cells
Arachnoid villi – structures that project from the
arachnoid layer; where blood is reabsorbed
Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
§ Motor functions decline
§ Mental functions (memory) decline

Hydrocephalus – accumulation of CSF in the ventricles

Motor Functions
Involuntary movements – occur without a conscious
thought

Voluntary movements – consciously activated to

achieve a specific goal; walking, typing

Upper motor neurons – have cell bodies in the cerebral

cortex

Lower motor neurons – have cell bodies in the anterior

horn

Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

Primary motor cortex – control voluntary movements of
skeletal muscles

Premotor area – where motor functions are organized

before they are actually initiated in the primary motor
cortex

Pre-frontal area – where planning and initiating

movements occur

Other Brain Functions

Communication bet. the Right & Left Hemispheres
Commissures – connection bet. the two hemispheres

Corpus callosum – largest commissure

Speech
Sensory speech area – Wernicke area; a portion of the
parietal lobe

Motor speech area – Broca area; inferior portion of the

frontal lobe

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SENSES
§ Ability to perceive stimuli
Sensation/Perception – conscious awareness of stimuli
received
GENERAL SENSES
§ Have receptors distributed over the body
§ Senses for touch, pressure, pain, temp.,
vibration, itch, proprioception
1. Somatic Senses – provide sensory info about the
body and the environment
2. Visceral Senses – provide info about various
internal organs (pain & pressure)
Transduction – a receptor absorbs energy from stimulus
Sensory Receptors – sensory nerve endings capable of
responding to stimuli by developing action potentials
2. Deep/Visceral Pain – diffuse; action potentials
are propagated more slowly
Local anesthesia – injected near a sensory
receptor/nerve resulting in reduced pain
General anesthesia – loss of consciousness is produced;
affects reticular formation
Gate control theory – inhibits action potentials carried
to the brain by the spinothalamic tract
Referred Pain
§ Originate in a region of the body that is not the
source of the pain stimulus
§ Clinically useful in diagnosing the actual cause
of the painful stimulus
§ Occurs bcos the sensory neurons (from the
superficial area) to which the pain is referred,
and the neurons (from the deeper, visceral area)
where the pain stimulation originates, converge
onto the same ascending neurons in the spinal
cord; thus the brain can’t distinguish

1. Mechanoreceptors – mechanical stimuli

SPECIAL SENSES
2. Chemoreceptors – chemicals (odor molecules) § Localized to specific parts of the body
§ Smell, taste, sight, hearing, balance
3. Photoreceptors – light

4. Thermoreceptors – temperature changes OLFACTION

§ Sense of smell
5. Nociceptors – sensation of pain § Occurs in response to airborne molecules
6. Free nerve endings – simplest and most Odorants – airborne molecules
common receptors
Ø Cold receptors – decreasing temp.; stop Olfactory neurons – bipolar neurons
responding at below 12OC
Ø Warm receptors – increasing temp.; stop Olfactory epithelium – lines the superior part of the
responding above 47 OC nasal cavity

7. Touch receptors – structurally more complex; Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction

enclosed by capsules
8. Merkel disks – light touch and superficial
pressure
9. Hair follicle receptors – light touch
10. Meissner corpuscles – fine, discriminative
touch; localizing tactile sensations
11. Ruffini corpuscles – continuous pressure in
skin
§ Axons of the olfactory neurons form the
olfactory nerves, which enter the olfactory
bulb. Olfactory tracts carry action potentials
from the olfactory bulbs to the olfactory cortex
of the brain.
Olfactory bulb – where olfactory neurons synapse with
interneurons
Olfactory tracts – relays action potentials to the brain
Olfactory cortex – where each olfactory tract terminates

12. Pacinian corpuscles – deepest receptors; deep Adaptation – feedback + temporary decreased
pressure, vibration, position sensitivity

Pain
§ Unpleasant perceptual and emotional TASTE
experiences Taste buds – detect taste stimuli
1. Superficial Pain – localized; rapidly conducted Papillae – enlargements on the surfaced of the tongue
action potentials

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Taste cells – 40 specialized epithelial cells Ø Medial rectus – turns eye inward
v Oblique muscles – two muscles to the long axis;
Taste hairs – hair-like processes superior and inferior
Ø Superior oblique – rotates counterclock
Taste pore – tiny opening in the surrounding stratified Ø Inferior oblique – rotates clockwise
epithelium
Anatomy of the Eye
Taste sensations Eyeball – hollow, fluid-filled sphere
1. Sour
2. Salty Tunics – 3 layered wall of the eye
3. Bitter v Fibrous tunic – sclera + cornea
4. Sweet Ø Sclera – firm, white, outer connective
5. Umami (savory) tissue; maintains the shape of the eye
Ø Cornea – transparent, permits light to
Neuronal Pathways for Taste
enter; refracts the entering light;
1. Facial Nerve (7) – transmits taste sensations
‘window of the eye’
from the anterior of the tongue

2. Glossopharyngeal nerve (9) – carries taste v Vascular tunic – contains most of the blood
vessels of the eye
sensations from the posterior of the tongue
Ø Choroid – thin structure that consists of
3. Vagus nerve (10) – carries some taste sensations melanin containing pigment cells
form the root of the tongue (causing black appearance); absorbs
light so that it is not reflected inside
4. Gustatory portion of the brainstem nuclei Ø Ciliary body – responsible for
accommodation; near objects = CM
5. Thalamus contracts + lens become rounder; far
objects = CM relaxes + lens become
6. Taste area (Insula) ovoid
• Ciliary muscles – smooth muscles

VISION • Suspensory ligaments – attached

the perimeter of the lens
Orbits – bony cavities where the eyes are housed • Lens – flexible, biconvex,
transparent disc
Accessory Structures of the Eye o Cataract – opacity of lens
§ Protect, lubricate, and move the eye Ø Iris – colored part of the eye; regulates
diameter of the pupil
Eyebrows – protect the eyes by preventing perspiration • Pupil – controls the amt. of light
from running down entering the eyes
o Parasympathetic – light
Eyelids – protect the eyes form foreign objects intensity increases; pupillary
v Blinking – occurs about 20 times/min.; keeps constriction
the eyes lubricated o Sympathetic – light intensity
decreases; pupillary dilation
Conjunctiva – thin, transparent mucous membrane
covering the inner surface of the eyelids; lubricate the v Nervous tunic – innermost tunic
surface of the eye Ø Retina – covers the posterior 5/6 of the
v Conjunctivitis – inflammation of the eye
conjunctiva • Pigmented retina – keeps light from
reflecting back into the eye
Lacrimal Apparatus
• Sensory retina – contains rods &
v Lacrimal gland – produces tears cones (photoreceptors) which
Ø Lacrimal canaliculi – small ducts where respond to light
excess tears are collected a. Rods – can function in very dim
Ø Lacrimal duct – enlargement of light; doesn’t provide color
nasolacrimal duct vision
v Nasolacrimal duct – opens into the nasal cavity o Rhodopsin – photosensitive
pigment; breaks down into:
Extrinsic Eye Muscles – 6 skeletal muscles that § Opsin – colorless
accomplish movement of each eyeball protein
v Rectus muscles § Retinal – yellow
Ø Superior rectus – rolls eye upwards pigment
Ø Inferior rectus – rolls eye downward
Ø Lateral rectus – turns eye outward

M o r a n o , M . A .
 o Night blindness – difficulty
seeing in dims light; caused
by vit. A deficiency
b. Cones – require more light;
provide color vision
o Red, Blue, Green – major
types of color sensitive
opsin
o Color blindness – caused
by lack of three cone types
o Partial color blindness –
lack of one cone type
o Retinal detachment – thalamus
separation of sensory retina
from the pigmented retina
Regions of the Retina
1. Macula lutea – small, yellow spot near the
center of the posterior retina
Ø Fovea centralis – region of sharpest
vision; where light is most focused
2. Optic disc – white spot through which a no. of
blood vessels enter the eye;
Ø Blind spot of the eye – contains no
photoreceptor cells and doesn’t respond
to light
Chambers of the Eye
v Anterior chamber
Posterior chamber
Ø Bet. the cornea and lens
Ø Aqueous humor – watery fluid; helps
maintain pressure within the eye,
refracts light, provides nutrients
Ø Glaucoma – increase in the intraocular
pressure due to blockage of AH flow
v Vitreous chamber
Ø Posterior to the lens
Ø Vitreous humor – transparent, jelly-like
substance; helps maintain pressure
within the eye, holds the lens and retina
in place; does not circulate
Functions of the Eye
1. Light Refraction
Ø Focal point – crossing point
Ø Focusing – causes light to converge
2. Focusing Images on the Retina
Ø Accommodation – causes greater
refraction of light; enables the eye to
focus on images
Neuronal Pathways for Vision
§ Light passes through cornea, through the
aqueous humor, through the lens, through the
vitreous humor, image forms on photoreceptors
in retina, breakdown of rhodopsin, signals
bipolar cells.
§ Axons pass though the optic nerves to the optic
chiasm, where some cross. Axons from the nasal
retina cross, and those from the temporal retina
do not.
§ Optic tracts from the chiasm lead to the
thalamus.
§ Optic radiations extend from the thalamus to
the visual cortex in the occipital lobe.
Optic nerve – leaves the eye and exits the orbit
Optic chiams – where two optic nerves connect
Optic tracts – the route of the ganglionic axons
Optic radiations – formed by neurons from the
Visual cortex – where vision is perceived
Visual field – image seen by each eye
HEARING & BALANCE
Anatomy and Function of the Ear
1. External Ear – outer part we see
a. Auricle – fleshy part; collects sound
waves & directs them toward the EAC
b. External auditory canal – passageway
that leads to the eardrum
c. Ceruminous glands – lines the auditory
canal
• Cerumen/earwax – modified
sebum; protects the lining of the
canal
d. Tympanic membrane/Eardrum – thin
membrane that separates the external
from the middle ear; sound waves
causes it to vibrate
2. Middle Ear – air filled chamber
a. Oval and Round window – connects
the middle to the inner
b. Auditory Ossicles – amplify vibrations
i. Malleus (hammer) – medial surface
of the tympanic m.
ii. Incus (anvil) – connects malleus to
stapes
iii. Stapes – its base is seated in the oval
window
c. Auditory/Eustachian tube – enables
pressure to be equalized
3. Inner Ear – fluid filled chamber; for sound
waves, balance, equilibrium
a. Bony labyrinth – interconnecting
tunnels and chambers
i. Cochlea – hearing
ii. Vestibule – balance
iii. Semicircular canal – balance
b. Membranous labyrinth – smaller set of
membranous tunnels and chambers
• Endolymph – clear fluid
c. Perilymph – fluid bet. membranous and
bony labyrinths
M o r a n o , M . A .
Cochlea Inferior colliculus – where neurons in the cochlear
§ Contains receptors for hearing nucleus project to the other areas of the brainstem
§ Snail shell shape
Balance
Spiral lamina – threads of the screw (base) Static equilibrium – vestibule; evaluating the position of
head relative to gravity
Scala vestibuli – extends from the oval window to the
apex of the cochlea Dynamic equilibrium – semi-circular canals; evaluating
changes in the direction and rate of head movements
Scala tympani – extends in parallel with the scala v.
from the apex Vestibule
v Utricle
Vestibular membrane – wall of the ML that lines the v Saccule
scala vestibuli
Maculae – specialized patches of epithelium
Basilar membrane – wall of the ML that lines the scala
tympani Otolithic membrane – gelatinous mass

Cochlear duct – space bet. the VM and the BM; filled Otoliths – gravity detectors composed of protein and
with endolymph calcium carbonate

Spiral organ/Organ of Corti – specialized structure; Semicircular canals – involved in dynamic equilibrium;
contains hair cells enables a person to detect movements in any direction
v Ampulla – expanded base of each SC
Hair cells – specialized sensory cells; contain microvilli v Crista ampullaris – specialized epithelium
formed within each ampulla
Tectorial membrane – acellular gelatinous shelf v Cupula – curved, gelatinous mass contained in
each crista
Cochlear/Spiral ganglion – contains cell bodies of hair
cells Motion sickness – caused by continuous stimulation of
the SC; characterized by nausea & weakness
Cochlear nerve – formed by axons of sensory neurons
Neuronal Pathways for Balance
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN 8) – formed by cochlear § Axons in the vestibular portion of the
nerve + vestibular nerve vestibulocochlear nerve project to the
vestibular nucleus and on to the cerebral
Glutamate – neurotransmitter for hearing cortex.
Hearing Vestibulocochlear nerve (8) – project to the vestibular
Higher pitches – causes max. distortion of the BM nucleus in the brainstem
Sound volume – function of sound wave amplitude Balance – a complex sensation involving sensory input
Conduction deafness – results from mechanical Effects of Aging on the Senses
deficiencies Presbyopia – lenses’ ability to change shape initially
declines and is eventually lost
Sensorineural hearing loss – caused by deficiencies in
the spiral organ/nerves Presbyacusis – age-related sensorineural hearing loss
Neuronal Pathways for Hearing
§ Soundwaves enter external auditory meatus,
causing the tympanic membrane to vibrate.
§ Malleus, incus, stapes amplify the vibrations,
causing the oval window to vibrate.
§ Vibrations are conducted through perilymph,
and transmitted to the endolymph, causing the
basilar membrane to vibrate.
§ Hair cells in the organ of Corti are stimulated.
§ From the vestibulocochlear nerve, action
potentials travel to the cochlear nucleus and on
the cerebral cortex.

Cochlear nucleus – where the cochlear nerve sends

axons

M o r a n o , M . A .

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Principles of Chemical Communication
Chemical messengers – allow cells to communicate with
each other
Secretion – controlled release of chemicals from a cell
Classes of Chemical Messengers
1. Autocrine – stimulates the cell that originally
secreted it; WBCs during an infection
2. Paracrine – act locally on nearby cells; WBCs
during allergic reactions
3. Neurotransmitter – activate an adjacent cell
4. Endocrine – secreted into the bloodstream by
certain glands and cells
Functions of the Endocrine System (MC3 I2WHUT)
1. Metabolism.
2. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients.
3. Control of reproductive functions.
4. Control of food intake and digestion.
5. Ion regulation.
6. Immune system regulation.
7. Water balance.
8. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation.
9. Uterine contraction and milk release.
10. Tissue development.
Characteristics of the Endocrine System
Endocrine System – composed of endocrine glands +
endocrine specialized cells
Hormones – chemical messenger that is secreted into the
blood
Target tissues – effectors; specific site
Endocrine – Greek word; endo (within) + krino (secrete)
Exocrine glands – have ducts that carry their secretions
to the outside of the body
Endocrinology – study of the endocrine system
Hormones
§ Greek word; hormone (to set into motion)
Chemical Nature of Hormones
1. Lipid-Soluble
2. Water-Soluble
Control of Hormone Secretion
Stimulation/Inhibition of Hormone Release
1. Humoral Stimuli – blood levels of chemicals
2. Neural Stimuli – nervous system
3. Hormonal Stimuli - hormones
Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood
A. Negative feedback
v Blood conc. of hormone declines
v More hormone is secreted
v If max. set point is exceeded
v Hormone production is halted
B. Positive feedback
v Tropic hormones stimulate the release
of other hormones
Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Action
Receptors – where hormones exert action by binding to
proteins
Receptor site – the portion of each receptor molecule
where a hormone binds
Specificity – tendency of hormones to bind to one type
of receptor
Target tissue – the responding tissue based on the
hormone released
Classes of Receptors
1. LSH bind to nuclear receptors.
v Interaction with cell DNA to regulate
transcription.
2. WSH bind to membrane bound receptors.
v Hormone receptor complex initiates a
response inside the cell (G proteins,
cAMP, protein kinase).
Endocrine Glands and their Hormones
Pituitary and Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland/Hypophysis
§ A small gland about the size of a pea
§ Controls the functions of many other glands
§ Secrets hormones that influence growth, kidney
function, birth, milk prod.
Hypothalamus
§ An important ANS and endocrine control center
of the brain
§ Controls the PG by hormonal control and direct
innervation
Infundibulum – a stalk that connects the pituitary gland
and the hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary – made up of epithelial cells derived
from embryonic oral cavity
Posterior pituitary – an extension of the brain;
composed of nerve cells
Hormonal Control of A. Pituitary
Hypothalamic-pituitary portal system – capillary beds
and veins that transport the releasing and inhibiting
hormones
M o r a n o , M . A .
ANTERIOR PITUITARY THYROID GLAND
1. Growth hormone (GH) 1. Calcitonin
§ Affects body growth by stimulating protein § Decreases rate of bone breakdown
synthesis by increasing gene expression § Prevents large increase in blood Ca2+ levels
§ Breakdown of lipids
§ Release of fatty acids from cells 2. Thyroid hormones
§ Increases blood glucose levels § Increases metabolic rates
§ Essential for normal process of growth
Pituitary dwarf – deficiency in GH although
normally proportioned Thyroxine / Tetraiodothyronine - contains four
iodine atoms
Gigantism – excess GH; exaggerated bone
growth occurs Triiodothyronine – contains three iodine atoms

Acromegaly – abnormally large facial features & Isthmus – narrow band that connects the two
hands lobes of the thyroid gland

Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) Thyroid follicles – where thyroid hormones are
synthesized and stored
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
§ Promotes synthesis and secretion of thyroid Goiter – excess TSH; low in iodine diet
hormone
Hypothyroidism – lack of thyroid hormones
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
§ Increases secretion of glucocorticoid hormones Cretinism – congenital absence of thyroxine in
§ Increases skin pigmentation infants

4. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) Myxedema – accumulation of fluid and other

§ Increases melanin prod. in melanocytes molecules in subcutaneous tissue in adults

5. Luteinizing hormone (LH) Hyperthyroidism – elevated rate of thyroid

§ Promotes ovulation and progesterone hormone secretion
production on ovary
Graves disease – hyperthyroidism that results
Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) when the immune system produces abnormal
§ Promotes testosterone synthesis and support for proteins
sperm cell prod. in testis
Exophthalmia – bulging of the eyes
6. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
§ Promotes follicle maturation and
secretion in ovary
estrogen PARATHYROID GLAND
§ Promotes sperm cell prod. in testis 1. Parathyroid hormone
§ Increase Ca+ levels in the blood
7. Prolactin § Increases rate of bone breakdown by osteoclasts
§ Promote development of breast during § Increases vit. D synthesis (essential for
pregnancy maintenance of normal blood calcium levels)
§ Stimulates milk prod. and prolongs
progesterone secretion Hyperparathyroidism (Hypercalcemia) –
§ Increases sensitivity to LH in males abnormally high rate of PTH secretion
Ø Tumor
Ø Muscle weakness
PITUITARY GLAND Ø Soft, easily deformed bones
1. Antidiuretic hormone Ø Prone to kidney stone formation
§ Conserves water
§ Constricts blood vessels Hypoparathyroidism (Hypocalcemia) –
abnormally low rate of PTH; surgery
§ Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH)
Ø Surgery
§ Diabetes Inspidus – large prod. of dilute urine
Ø Frequent muscle cramps or tetanus
2. Oxytocin Ø Respiratory arrest
§ Swift birth Ø CHVOSTEK’s sign & TROSSEAU sign
§ Increases uterine contractions
§ Increases milk letdown

M o r a n o , M . A .
ADRENAL MEDULLA PANCREAS
1. Epinephrine (Adrenalin) & Norepinephrine 1. Insulin
§ Fight-or-flight hormones § Secreted by beta cells
§ Increases cardiac output § Increases uptake and use of glucose and amino
§ Increases blood flow to skeletal muscles & heart acids
§ Increases release of glucose and fatty acids into § Released in response to elevated blood glucose
blood level & parasympathetic stimulation
§ Prepares body for physical activity
2. Glucagon
§ Secreted by alpha cells
ADRENAL CORTEX § Increases breakdown of glycogen and release of
1. Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoids) glucose into the circulatory system
§ Regulates water balance § Released in response to low blood glucose level
§ Increases rate of Na transport into body
§ Increase rate of K excretion Glycogen – stored glucose in muscles & liver

Renin – protein molecule that acts as an enzyme Acidosis – reduced pH of body fluids

Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System Satiety center – area of the hypothalamus that
(RAAS) – helps the body to address decreasing controls apetite
blood volume
Diabetes mellitus – much urine + sweetened
2. Cortisol (Glucocorticoids) v Type 1 – occurs when too little insulin is
§ Increase fat & protein breakdown secreted from pancreas
§ Increase glucose synthesis from amino acids v Type 2 – caused by insufficient no. of
§ Increase blood nutrient levels insulin receptors
§ Inhibit inflammation & immune response
Hyperglycemia – high blood glucose levels
§ Helps the body in stressful situations by
providing energy sources
Polyphagia – increased appetite/eating
Cortisone – artificial cortisol; anti-inflammatory
Polyuria – increased eating
effect
Polydipsia – excessive thirst
3. Androgens
§ Male sex hormone; stimulates the dev’t of male

§
characteristics
Increases female sex drive
TESTES
1. Testosterone
Addison’s disease – hyposecretion of adrenal § Aids in sperm cell prod.
cortex hormones § Maintenance of functional reproductive organs,
secondary sexual characteristics, sexual behavior
Cushing’s disease – tumor in middle cortex

Hyperaldosteronism – hyperactivity of outer OVARIES

cortex 1. Estrogen & Progesterone
§ Aid in uterine and mammary gland
Hirsutism – masculinization (inner cortex) development and function, external genitalia
structure, secondary sexual characteristics,
sexual behavior, menstrual cycle
THYMUS
1. Thymosin 2. Prostaglandins
§ Promotes immune system development and § Mediate inflammatory responses
function § Increase uterine contractions and ovulations
§ Helps the dev’t of certain WBC (T-cells)
OTHER HORMONES
PINEAL GLAND 1. Erythropoietin
1. Melatonin § Acts on bone marrow to increase the prod. of
§ Inhibits secretion of gonadotropin-releasing RBCs
hormone (thus inhibits reproduction)
§ Biological clock (day & night cycle) 2. Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
Stimulated prod. of estrogen & progesterone

M o r a n o , M . A .
BLOOD Formed Elements
§ A type of connective tissue that consists of a Production of Formed Elements
liquid matrix Hematopoiesis – process of blood cell production;
confined primarily to red bone marrow
I. Plasma
A. Plasma Proteins Stem cells / Hemocytoblasts – where all formed
1. Albumin elements of blood are derived from
2. Globulin
3. Fibrinogen I. Red Blood Cells / Erythrocytes
B. Serum § Disk-shaped x biconcave (increases the cell’s
surface area)
II. Formed Elements § Anucleate (without nucleus & organelles)
A. Platelts § Transports O2 form the lungs to the various
B. RBCs tissues of the body
C. WBCs § Helps transport CO2 from the tissues to the
1. Granular lungs
i. Neutrophils
ii. Basophils Hemoglobin – main component of RBCs;
iii. Eosinophils pigmented protein responsible for its red color
2. Agranular
i. Lymphocytes Oxygen transport – accomplished by the
ii. Monocytes hemoglobin

Functions Globin – each protein

1. Transport of gases, nutrients, & waste products.
2. Transport of processed molecules. Heme – red-pigmented molecules that
3. Transport of regulatory molecules. composes a globin
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis.
5. Maintenance of body temperature. Bright red hemoglobin – bound to O2
6. Protection against foreign substances.
7. Clot formation. Darker red hemoglobin – without bound to O2

Composition of Blood Iron – necessary for O2 transport

§ Plasma – liquid matrix
§ Formed elements – cells & cell fragments Carbonic anhydrase – an enzyme that catalyzes
§ 4 – 5 L in females; 5 – 6 L in males a reaction that converts CO2 and H2O into a
§ 8% of total body weight hydrogen ion and a bicarbonate ion

Plasma Proerythroblasts – give rise to the RBCs line

§ Pale yellow fluid
a. 91% water, 7% proteins, 2% ions/gases B vitamins folate & B12 – required for cell
division; necessary for the synthesis of DNA
Plasma Proteins
1. Albumin – water balance bet. the blood and Iron – required for the production of
tissues hemoglobin

2. Globulins – part of the immune system; RBC production – stimulated by low blood O2
function as transport molecules; a clotting factor level
v Alpha globulins – transport hormones,
prothrombin, high density lipoprotein Erythropoietin – glycoprotein released by the
(HDL/healthy cholesterol) kidneys; stimulates red bone marrow to produce
more RBC
v Beta globulins – transport vitamins,
minerals, and other lipoproteins
Iron recycling
(LDL/bad cholesterol)
§ When RBCs become old, abnormal and
v Gamma globulins – antibodies that
damaged, they are removed from the
provide imuunity
blood by macrophages.
3. Fibrinogen – a clotting factor § Within the macrophage, the globin is
broken down into amino acids that are
v Fibrin – threadlike protein that forms
reused to produce other proteins.
blood clots
§ Iron released from the heme is transported
Serum to the red bone marrow and used to
produce new hemoglobin.
§ Plasma without the clotting factors

M o r a n o , M . A .
 § The heme molecules are converted into b. Monocyte
bilubrin. • Largest of the WBCs
§ Bilubrin – yellow pigment molecule; • Macrophages – enlarged
brown color monocytes; phagocytize bacteria,
§ If the liver is not functioning normally, or dead cells, cell fragments; can break
flow of bile is hindered = bilubrin builds down phagocytized foreign
up and produces jaundice substances
§ Jaundice – yellowish color to the skin
§ Converted bilubrin into other pigments = III. Platelets / Thrombocytes
brown color in feces + yellow color in § Produced in the red bone marrow from
urine megakaryocytes (large cells)
§ Play an important role in preventing blood loss
II. White Blood Cells / Leukocytes
§ Spherical cells that lack hemoglobin Preventing Blood Loss
§ Thin, white later of cells + has a nucleus A. Vascular Spasm
§ Protects the body against invading § An immediate but temporary constriction of
microorganisms blood vessels
§ Removes dead cells and debris form the tissues § Constriction can close small vessels completely
by phagocytes and stop the flow of blood through them
§ Thromboxanes – derived from certain
Ameboid movement – like an ameba; cell prostaglandins
projects a cystoplasmic extension that attaches to § Endothelin- endothelial cells lining blood
an object vessels

A. Granulocytes – large cytoplasmic granules B. Platelet Plug Formation

a. Neutrophil § An accumulation of platelets that can seal up a
• Most common type of WBCs small break in blood vessels
• Stains with both acidic & basic dyes § Maintains the integrity of the circulatory system
• Commonly lobed (2 – 4)
• Phagocytize microorganism and i. Platelet adhesion – platelets stick to the
other foreign substances collagen exposed by blood vessel
damage
• Pus – dead neutrophils, cell debris
v Von Willebrand factor – protein
and fluid that accumulates at sites
produced and secreted by blood vessel
of infections
endothelial cells; forms a bridge bet.
collagen and platelets by binding to
b. Basophil
platelet surface receptors and collagen
• Least common of all WBCs
• Stain blue/purple with basic dyes ii. Platelet release reaction – platelets
• Release histamine and other release chemicals (ADP and
chemicals that promote thromboxane) that activate other
inflammation platelets
• Release heparin which prevents the v Fibrinogen receptors – surface receptors
formation of clots that bind to fibrinogen

c. Eosinophil iii. Platelet aggregation – fibrinogen forms

• Stain bright red with an acidic stain bridges be. The fibrinogen receptors of
(eosin) numerous platelets
• Two lobed nucleus
C. Blood Clotting / Coagulation
• Involved in inflammatory responses
§ (A) Inactive clotting factors activate or (B)
associated with allergies and asthma
Thromboplastin causes activation.
• Involved in destroying certain § Series of activation of clotting factors
worm parasites occurs.
§ Prothrombinase / Prothrombin activator
B. Agranulocytes – very small granules
is formed.
a. Lymphocyte
§ Prothrombinase converts prothrombin
• Smallest of the WBCs (inactive CF) to thrombin (active CF).
• Play an important role in body’s § Thrombin converts fibrinogen (inactive
immune response CF) to fibrin (active CF).
• Production of anti-bodies and other § Each CF activates many additional CF
chemicals that destroy resulting in formation of a clot.
microorganisms

M o r a n o , M . A .
 Clot – traps blood cells, platelets, and fluid
Fibrin – a network of threadlike protein fibers
Vitamin K & Ca – required for clot formation
Sources of vit. K – diet + bacteria within the
large intestine
Anticoagulants – prevent CF from forming clots
under normal conditions
Antithrombin & Heparin – inactivate thrombin
Clot retraction – a clot begins to condense into a
more compact structure
Fibrinolysis – process wherein clots
dissolved
Plasminogen – inactive plasma protein
Plasmin – active plasma protein
Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) – stimulate
the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin
Heart attack – results when a clot blocks blood
vessels that supply the heart
Aspirin & Anticoagulant therapies – prevent
heart attacks
Plasmin activators – quickly dissolve the clot
and restore blood flow to cardiac muscle
Streptokinase – a bacterial enzyme used to
dissolve clots
Blood Grouping
Transfusion – transfer of blood/blood components form
one individual to another
Infusion – introduction of fluids other than blood
(saline, glucose) into the blood
Transfusion reactions – clumping/rupture of blood
cells and clotting within blood vessels
Antigen – molecules on the surfaces of RBCs
Antibodies – proteins in plasma
Agglutination – clumping of cells
Hemolysis – rupture of blood cells; caused by the
combination of the antibodies with the antigens
ABO and Rh blood groups – most important in
transfusion reactions
A. ABO Blood Group
§ ABO antigens appear on the surface of the RBCs
§ Antigens on bacteria/food in the digestive tract
stimulate formation of antibodies against
antigens that are different from the body’s own
antigens
Blood Type Antigen Antibody
A A B
B B A
AB AB N/A
O N/A AB
Donor – person who gives blood
Recipient – person who receives blood
are Universal Donor = type O blood – misleading
§ Mismatching other blood groups can
cause transfusion reactions
§ Antibodies in the donor’s blood can react
with antigens on the recipient’s RBCs
B. Rh Blood Group
§ First studied in the rhesus monkey
§ Can occur through
v Transfusion
v Transfer of blood across the placenta to
a mother from her fetus
Rh-positive – have Rh antigens on the surface of
RBCs
Rh-negative – don’t have Rh antigens
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN) /
Erythroblastosis fetalis
§ Mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that
cross the placenta and cause agglutination
and hemolysis of fetal RBCs
§ Doesn’t occur in first pregnancy
§ Arises in later pregnancies
Rho (D) immune globulin (RhoGAM) –
prevention of HDN that contains antibodies
against Rh antigens; inactivates the fetal Rh
antigens and prevents sensitization of the
mother
M o r a n o , M . A .
Diagnostic Blood Tests
A. Type and Crossmatch
Blood typing – determines the ABO and Rh blood
groups of a blood sample
Crossmatch – donor’s blood cells are mixed with the
recipient’s serum + donor’s serum is moxed with the
recipient’s cells; safe = no agglutination occurs in both
A. Complete Blood Count (CBC)
§ Analysis of blood that provides useful info
§ Consists of RBC count, hemoglobin + hematocrit
measurements, WBC count
1. Red Blood Count
§ Male – 4.6-6.2 M RBCs/microliter of blood
§ Female – 4.2-5.4 M/microliter
§ Erythrocytosis – overabundance of RBCs
§ Erythrocytopenia – deficiency of RBCs
2. Prothrombin Time Measurement
§ How long it takes for the blood to start clotting
§ Normally is 9-12 s
§ Prothrombin time – determined by adding
thromboplastin to whole plasma
§ Thromboplastin – released from injured tissues
that starts the process of clotting
§ International Normalized Ratio (INR) –
standardizes time it takes to clot
D. Blood Chemistry
§ High blood glucose levels – pancreas is not
producing enough insulin
§ High blood urea nitrogen (BUN) – reduced
kidney function
§ Increased bilirubin – liver dysfunction
§ High cholesterol levels – risk of cardiovascular
disease

2. Hemoglobin Measurement
§ Male – 14-18 g/100 mL of blood
§ Female – 12-16 g/100 mL
§ Anemia – abnormally low hemoglobin
measurement
v Aplastic Anemia – inability of red bone
marrow to produce RBCs
v Iron-deficiency Anemia – deficiency
intake or excessive loss
v Folate deficiency – fewer cell division;
neural tube defects
v Pernicious Anemia – inadequate vit.
B12 or intrinsic function

3. Hematocrit Measurement
§ Hematocrit – total blood volume that is
composed of RBCs
§ Buffy coat – thin, whitish layer bet. the plasma
and RBCs
§ Hematocrit measurement – affected by no. and
size of RBCs

4. White Blood Count

§ 5000-9000 white cells per/microliter of blood
§ Leukopenia – lower than normal WBC
§ Leukocytosis – abnormally high WBC
§ Leukemia – cancer of the red marrow; abnormal
production of one/more WBC types

B. Differential Blood Count

§ Determines % of each of the 5 kinds of WBCs
§ 60-70% Neutrophils
§ 20-25% Lymphocytes
§ 3-8% Monocytes
§ 2-4% Eosinophils
§ 0.5-1% Basophils

C. Clotting
1. Platelet count
§ 250K – 400K platelets/microliter of blood
§ Thrombocytopenia – platelet count is freatly
reduced; caused by decreased platelet prod.

M o r a n o , M . A .
HEART
§ A muscular organ that pumps blood through
the body
§ Pumps approx. 5L/min of blood
§ Approx. the size of a closed fist
Cardiovascular system – the heart + blood vessels +
blood
Pulmonary circulation – right side of the heart pumps
blood to the lungs; then back to the left side
Systemic circulation – left side of the heart pumps
blood to all other tissues of the body; then back to the
right side
Functions
1. Generating blood pressure.
2. Routing blood.
3. Ensuring one-way blood flow.
4. Regulating blood supply.
Size, Form, and Location of the Heart
Apex – blunt, rounded point of the heart
Base – larger, flat part at the opposite end of the heart
Mediastinum – midline partition
Pericardial cavity – surrounding cavity of the heart
Importance of location and shape of the Heart
§ To accurately place a stethoscope
§ To place chest leads for ECG
§ To administer CPR
Anatomy of the Heart
Pericardium
Pericardial cavity – where the heart lies
Pericardium/Pericardial sac – surrounds the heart and
anchors it within the mediastinum
Fibrous pericardium – tough, fibrous connective tissue
outer layer
Serous pericardium – thin layer of connective tissue
Parietal pericardium – serous pericardium ling the
fibrous pericardium
Visceral pericardium/Epicardium – portion covering
the heart surface
Pericardial fluid – produced by the SP; reduces friction
as the heart moves
External Anatomy
Atria – entrance chamber
Ventricles – cavities
Coronary sulcus – separates the atria from the ventricles
v Anterior interventricular sulcus
v Posterior interventricular sulcus
Superior & Inferior vena cava – carry blood to the RA
Pulmonary veins – carry blood form the lungs to the LA
Pulmonary trunk & aorta – exit the heart
Pulmonary arteries – carry blood to the lungs
Aorta – carries blood to the rest of the body
Heart Chambers and Internal Anatomy
A. Right and Left Atria
§ Receives blood from the veins
§ Function as reservoirs; where blood returning
from veins collects before it enter the ventricles
§ Interatrial septum – separator of the two atria
B. Right and Left Ventricle
§ Major pumping chambers
§ Ejects blood into the arteries and forces it to flow
through the CS
§ Interventricular septum – separator of the two
ventricles
Heart Valves
Atrioventricular valves
§ Allows blood to flow from the atria into the
ventricles;
§ Prevents it from flowing back into the atria
1. Tricuspid valve – bet. the RA and the RV
2. Bicuspid/Mital valve – bet. the LA and the LV
Papillary muscles – cone-shaped, muscular pillars;
prevents the valves from opening into the atria
Chordae tendineae – thin, strong, connective tissue
strings
Aortic & Pulmonary semilunar valves – blocks blood
from flowing back into the ventricles
Cardiac skeleton – a plate of connective tissue; electrical
insulation bet. the atria and the ventricles; provides rigid
attachment site for cardiac muscle
M o r a n o , M . A .

Route of Blood Flow Through the Heart
1. Superior & Inferior vena cava
2. Right Atrium (RA)
3. Tricuspid Valve (TV)
4. Right Ventricle (RV)
5. Pulmonary semilunar valves
6. Pulmonary trunk
7. Pulmonary arteries
8. Lung tissue (Pulmonary circulation)
9. Pulmonary veins
10. Left Atrium (LA)
11. Biscupid Valve (BV)
12. Left Ventricle (LV)
13. Aortic semilunar valves
14. Aorta
15. Body tissues (Systemic Circulation)
Blood Supply to the Heart
Coronary arteries – supply blood to the wall of the heart
v Left coronary artery
v Anterior interventricular artery
v Circumflex artery
v Left marginal artery
v Right coronary artery
v Right marginal artery
Cardiac veins
v Cardiac veins
v Coronary sinus
Histology of the Heart
Heart Wall
1. Epicardium/Visceral pericardium
§ Thin, serous membrane forming the smooth
outer surface
§ Consists of simple squamous epithelium
overlaying a layer of loose connective tissue +
adipose tissue
2. Myocardium
§ Composed of cardiac muscles
§ Responsible for contraction of
chambers
3. Endocardium
§ Simple squamous epithelium over a layer of
connective tissue
§ Allows blood to move easily
§ Forms the heart valves
Trabeculae carneae – ridges and columns of cardiac
muscle
Cardiac Muscle
§ Relies on Ca2+ and ATP for contraction
Cardiac muscle cells
§ Elongated, branching cells
§ Two, centrally located nuclei
§ Contains actin and myosin myofilaments that
form sarcomeres
§ Rich in mitochondria (produce ATP at rapid
rate)
Actin & Myosin myofilaments – responsible for muscle
contraction
Organization of A&M myofilaments – gives the cardiac
muscle a striated (banded) appearance
Intercalated disks – specialized cell-to-cell contacts;
greatly increase contact in between; prevents cells form
pulling apart
Gap junctions – specialized cell membrane structures;
allow cytoplasm to flow freely bet. cells
Electrical Activity of the Heart
Action Potentials in Cardiac Muscle
1. Depolarization phase
2. Plateau phase – period of slow repolarization
3. Repolarization phase – achieves its maximum
degree of polarization; returns to the resting
membrane potential
Refractory period
§ Allows cardiac muscle to contract and relax
almost completely before another action
potential can be produced
§ Prevents tetanic contractions from occurring
Conduction System of the Heart
§ Specialized cardiac muscle cells in the heart wall
Sinoatrial node (SA) – heart’s pacemaker; initiates the
contraction of the heart
Atrioventricular node (AV) – spreads action potential
slowly
Atrioventricular bundle – a bundle of specialized
cardiac muscle
Left & Right bundle branches – two branches of
conducting tissue
the heart
Purkinje fibers – conduct action potentials more rapidly
than do other cardiac muscle fibers
M o r a n o , M . A .
Ectopic beat – action potentials originate in an area of Regulation of Heart Function
the heart than the SA node Cardiac output (CO) – vol. of blood pumped; 5 L/min

Electrocardiogram (ECG) Stroke volume (SV) – vol. of blood pumped per

§ An extremely valuable tool for diagnosing a ventricle per contraction; 70 mL/beat
number of cardiac abnormalities
Heart rate (HR) – no. of times the heart contracts per
P wave – depolarization of the atrial myocardium minute; 72 beats/min

QRS complex – depolarization of the ventricles CO = SV x HR

T wave – repolarization of ventricles Intrinsic Regulation of the Heart

PQ interval – time bet. the beginning of the P wave and
the beginning of the QRS complex; atria contracts and
begins to relax
v PR interval – common name bcos the Q wave is
very small
§ Mechanisms contained within the heart itself
Venous return – amt. of blood that returns to the heart
Preload – degree to which the ventricular walls are
stretched at the end of diastole

QT interval – represents the time req. for ventricular Starling’s Law of the Heart – relationship bet. preload
depolarization and repolarization and stroke volume

Cardiac Cycle Afterload – pressure against which the ventricles must

§ Repetitive pumping process of cardiac muscle pump blood
contractions
Extrinsic Regulation of the Heart
Major events § Mechanisms external to the heart
1. Atrial systole
2. Ventricular contraction A. Nervous Regulation: Baroreceptor Reflex
3. Ejection § A mechanism of the nervous system in
4. Ventricular relaxation regulating heart function
5. Passive ventricular filling
Baroreceptors – stretch receptors that monitor
blood pressure
Atrium – primer pump; complete the filling of ventricles
with blood Cardioregulatory center – receives and
integrates action potentials form the
Ventricle – power pump; produce the major force that baroreceptors
causes blood to flow
B. Chemical Regulation: Chemoreceptor Reflex
Atrial systole – contraction of two atria Epinephrine & Norepinephrine – causes
increased HR and SV
Ventricular systole – contraction of two ventricles

Atrial diastole – relaxation of the two atria

Ventricular diastole – relaxation of the two ventricles

Systole & Diastole – ventricular contraction or

relaxation

Heart Sounds
Stethoscope – used to listen to the sounds of the lungs
and the heart

Lubb – closure of the AV valves

Dupp – closure of the semilunar valves

Murmurs – abnormal heart sounds; result of a faulty

valve

Stenosed – when opening of a valve is narrowed;

swishing sound precedes

M o r a n o , M . A .
 BLOOD VESSELS OF THE PULMONARY
BLOOD VESSELS CIRCULATION
FUNCTIONS: • Pulmonary Trunk
1. Carries blood • Right and Left pulmonary arteries
2. Exchanges nutrients, wastes and gases • Pulmonary veins
3. Transports substances
4. Helps regulate blood pressure BLOOD VESSELS OF THE SYSTEMIC
5. Directs blood flow to tissues CIRCULATION – ARTERIES
AORTA – where all arteries of the systemic circulation
SYSTEMIC VESSELS – from LV and back to the RA branch directly or indirectly
PULMONARY VESSELS – from RV to lungs to LA 3 PARTS:
1. ASCENDING AORTA – passes superiorly from
PERIPHERAL CIRCULATION LV; where R and L coronary arteries arise from
GENERAL FEATURES OF BLOOD VESSEL its base
STRUCTURE
ARTERIES 2. AORTIC ARCH – aorta arches posteriorly and
- carry blood AWAY from the heart to the left
- Oxygenated blood 3 major arteries that carry blood to the head
and upper limbs:
CLASSIFICATION:
• BRACHIOCEPHALIC ARTERY
1. ELASTIC – largest diameter and have the
thickest walls • L COMMON CAROTID ARTERY
• L SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY
2. MUSCULAR – medium-sized and small
diameter 3. DESCENDING AORTA – longest part
- called DISTRIBUTING ARTERY because it • THORACIC AORTA – extends through the
can control blood flow to diff. regions of the thorax and diaphragm
body • ABDOMINAL AORTA – extends through the
diaphragm
3. ARTERIOLES – smallest artery; transport blood • ARTERIAL ANEURYSM – localized dilation
from small artery to capillary of an artery that usually develops in response
to trauma or a congenital weakness of the
- Site where exchange occurs between blood and tissue artery wall
fluids; has thinner walls
ARTERIES OF THE HEAD AND NECK
ENDOTHELIUM – makes up capillary walls BRACHIOCEPHALIC ARTERY – first vessel to branch
from the aortic arch
PRECAPILLARY SPHINCTERS – regulates blood flow
• R Common carotid artery and R Subclavian
artery; L Common carotid artery and L
VEINS
Subclavian artery – 2nd and 3rd branches
- Carry blood TOWARD the heart
- Deoxygenated blood
COMMON CAROTID ARTERY – internal and external
- From capillaries; thinner walls & has less elastic tissue
CA
CLASSIFICATION:
VERTEBRAL ARTERY – supply blood to the brain
1. VENULES – tubes with a diameter slightly
larger than that of capillary
BASILAR ARTERY – supply blood to the pons,
cerebellum and midbrain
2. SMALL VEINS – slightly larger than venules;
has 3 tunics
ARTERIES OF THE UPPER LIMBS
1. AXILLARY ARTERY – axilla (armpit)
3. MEDIUM-SIZED VEINS – collect blood from
small veins and deliver it to large veins
2. BRACHIAL ARTERY – arm
3 TUNICS OF BLOOD VESSELS
3. ULNAR AND RADIAL ARTERY – forearm
1. TUNICA INTIMA – innermost; basement
and arm
membrane; composed of Endothelium
a. RADIAL A – commonly used for taking a
pulse
2. TUNICA MEDIA – middle layer; smooth
muscles arranged circularly

3. TUNICA ADVENTITIA – outer portion

ACPS.
THORACIC AORTA AND ITS BRANCHES
1. VESCERAL ARTERY – supply the THORACIC
ORGANS
2. PARIETAL ARTERY – supply the THORACIC
WALL
MAJOR PARIETAL ARTERIES:
• POSTERIOR INTERCOSTAL ARTERY – from
thoracic aorta and extend bet the ribs
• SUPERIOR PHRENIC ARTERY – supply the
diaphragm
• INTERNAL THORACIC ARTERY – descend
along the internal surface of the anterior thoracic
wall
• ANTERIOR INTERCOSTAL ARTERY –
extend bet ribs to supply the anterior chest wall
ABDOMINAL AORTA AND ITS BRANCHES
1. VISCERAL
a. PAIRED BRANCHES
i. RENAL ARTERIES – kidneys
ii. SUPRARENAL A. – adrenal glands
iii. TESTICULAR and OVARIAN A. – testes
and ovaries
b. UNPAIRED BRANCHES
i. CELIAC TRUNK – supply blood to stomach,
pancreas, spleen, upper duodenum and liver
ii. SUPERIOR MESENTRIC A. – small
intestines and upper portion of the large
intestines
iii. INFERIOR MESENTRIC A. – remainder of
the large intestines
2. PARIETAL
a. INFERIOR PHRENIC A. – diaphragm
b. LUMBAR A – lumbar vertebrae and back
muscles
c. MEDIAN SACRAL – inferior vertebrae
ARTERIES OF THE PELVIS
1. EXTERNAL ILIAC A – enters lower limbs
2. INTERNAL ILIAC A – supplies the pelvic area
a. VISCERAL BRANCHES – supply
urinary bladder, rectum, uterus, vagina
b. PARIETAL BRANCHES – walls and
floor of the pelvis; lumbar, gluteal and
proximal thigh muscles; external
genitalia
ARTERIES OF THE LOWER LIMBS
1. FEMORAL ARTERY – thigh
2. POLITEAL ARTERY – popliteal space, posterior
region of the knee
a. ANTERIOR TIBIAL A. – dorsalis pedis A.
(ankle)
b. POSTERIOR TIBIAL A. – fibular/peroneal A.
(supply blood to the leg and foot)
BLOOD VESSELS OF THE SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION – VEINS
SUPERIOR VENA CAVA – head, neck, thorax, upper
limbs
INFERIOR VENA CAVA – abdomen, pelvis, lower
limbs
VEINS OF HEAD AND NECK
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL JUGULAR VEINS – 2
major veins that drain blood from head and neck
1. EXTERNAL – more superficial
2. INTERNAL – larger and deeper
VEINS OF THE UPPER LIMBS
1. DEEP VEINS – drain deep structure of upper limbs
• BRACHIAL VEIN – only noteworthy deep vein
which accompany the brachial artery and
empties the axillary vein
2. SUPERFICIAL VEIN – drain the superficial
structure of the upper limbs
MAJOR SUPERFICIAL VEINS:
• CEPHALIC VEIN – empties in the axillary vein
• BASILIC VEIN – becomes the axillary vein
• MEDIAN CUBITAL VEIN – connects the
Cephalic w/ Basilic vein
o CUBITAL FOSSA – site for draining
blood
VEINS OF THE THORAX
1 – 2. R and L BRACHIOCEPHALIC VEINS
3. AZYGOS VEIN
VEINS OF THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIS
INTERNAL ILIAC VEINS – drain the pelvis
EXTERNAL ILIAC VEINS – from lower limbs
COMMON ILIAC VEINS – combine to form the IVC
PORTAL SYSTEM – Vascular system; has no pumping
mechanism
HEPATIC PORTAL SYSTEM – begins w/ capillaries in
the viscera and ends w/ capillaries in the liver
• MAJOR TRIBUTARIES:
1. SPLENIC VEIN
2. SUPERIOR MESENTRIC VEIN
a. SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR MV – carry
blood from intestines
b. SPLENIC AND SUPERIOR MV – enters the
liver
OTHER VEINS:
• RENAL VEINS – drain the kidneys
• SUPRARENAL VEINS – adrenal gland
• TESTICULAR AND OVARIAN VEINS –
testes and ovaries
ACPS.
VEINS OF THE LOWER LIMBS
SUPERFICIAL VEINS: EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE BLOOD VESSELS
• GREAT SAPHENOUS VEIN – dorsal and ARTERIOSCLEROSIS – arteries become narrowed and
medial side of foot blood flow decreases
• SMALL SAPHENOUS VEIN – lateral side of
foot ATHEROSCLEROSIS – type of arteriosclerosis

PHYSIOLOGY OF CIRCULATION
FUNCTION OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:
- To maintain adequate blood flow
- Blood flows through arterial system primarily as a
result of the pressure produced by the contraction of the
heart.

BLOOD PRESSURE – measure of the force of blood  

exerted against the blood vessel walls
• SYSTOLIC PRESSURE – maximum value
• DIASTOLIC PRESSURE – minimum value
• mmHg – standard unit for BP
• KOROTKOFF SOUNDS – can be heard through a
stethoscope

PRESSURE AND RESISTANCE – if blood vessels

constrict, resistance to blood flow increases and blood
flow decreases

PULSE PRESSURE – can be detected on large arteries

near body surface

CAPILLARY EXCHANGE – most exchange across the

wall of the capillary occurs by DIFFUSION

CONTROL OF BLOOD FLOW IN TISSUES

LOCAL CONTROL – periodic contraction and
relaxation of pre-capillary sphincters

NERVOUS CONTROL
• SYMPATHETIC NERVE FIBERS – innervate most
blood vessels of the body
• VASOMOTOR CENTER – controls blood vessel
diameter
• VASOMOTOR TONE – state of partial constriction
of blood vessels

REGULATION OF ARTERIAL PRESSURE

MEAN ARTERIAL PRESSURE – controlled by min. to
min. basis by changes in heart rate, stoke vol and pulse
rate
BARORECEPTOR REFLEXES – respond to stretch in
arteries caused by an increased in pressure

CHEMORECEPTOR REFLEXES – respond to changes

in blood oxygen and CO2 concentration and pH

HORMONAL MECHANISM
• ADRENAL MEDULLARY MECHANISM
• RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE
MECHANISM
• VASO PRESSIN MECHANISM
• ARTRIAL NATRIURETIC MECHANISM

ACPS.