NERVOUS SYSTEM

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1. Identify five general functions of the nervous system. Explain these functions
and give examples each.
Functions (CRIME)
1. Controlling muscles and glands. Ex: the nervous system controls the secretions
from many glands, including sweat glands, salivary glands, and glands of the digestive
system.
2. Receiving sensory input. Ex: sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch, pain, body position,
and temperature
3. Integrating information. Ex: the brain and spinal cord are the major organs for
processing sensory input and initiating responses
4. Maintaining homeostasis. Ex: heart cells must contract at a rate that ensures
adequate delivery of blood to all tissues of the body
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity. Ex: the brain is the center of mental
activities, including consciousness, thinking, memory, and emotions.
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2. Discuss briefly each component of the nervous system as presented in Figure
1.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
- consists of the brain and the spinal cord
- The CNS processes many different kinds of incoming sensory information.
- It is also the source of thoughts, emotions, and memories.
- Most signals that stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete originate in the
CNS.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- composed of the nerves (cranial and spinal nerves) that connect the central nervous
system to other body parts
- components of the PNS includes:
Nerve is a bundle of many axons that connects the CNS to sensory receptors,
muscles, and glands.
Cranial nerve 12 pairs of nerves originating from the brain
 Spinal nerves 31 pairs of nerves originating from the spinal cord
Ganglion or Ganglia
- small masses of nervous tissue
- is a collection of neuron cell bodies located outside the CNS
Enteric Plexus (plek′sus; braid) is an extensive network of axons and, in some
cases, neuron cell bodies, located outside the CNS.
Sensory receptors
- monitors changes in the external or internal environment
- are the endings of neurons, or separate, specialized cells that detect
temperature, pain, touch, pressure, light, sound, odor, and other stimuli
a. Sensory Division – afferent (toward) division; conducts action potentials (transmits
electrical signals) from sensory receptors to the CNS
• Sensory neurons – neurons that transmit action potentials from the periphery
to the CNS
i. Somatic Sensory Fibers – carry info from stimuli coming from the skin, skeletal,
muscles, joints
ii. Visceral Sensory Fibers – transmits impulses coming from the visceral organs
b. Motor Division – efferent (away) division; conducts action potentials from the CNS to
effector organs
• Motor neurons – neurons that transmit action potentials from the CNS toward
the periphery
i. Somatic Nervous System / Voluntary – transmits action potentials form
the CNS to the skeletal muscles
ii. Autonomic Nervous System / Involuntary – transmits action potentials
from the CNS to cardiac muscle, smooth muscles and glands
1. Sympathetic – fight-or-flight system
2. Parasympathetic – resting and digesting system
iii. Enteric Nervous System – unique subdivision; both sensory and motor neurons
contained within the digestive tract; monitor and control the digestive tract
independently of the CNS through local reflexes
3. Explain the communication between the central nervous system and peripheral
nervous system as presented in Figure 2 (See Module).

Flowchart showing that the central nervous

system receives input via sensory fibers and
issues commands via motor fibers. The
sensory and motor fibers together form the
nerves that constitute the peripheral nervous
system.

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1. Describe the neuron as a “conducting cell”. Define its structures.
The actual nerve cell is the neuron. It is the "conducting" cell that transmits
impulses and the structural unit of the nervous system.
Cells of the Nervous System
Neurons
- Also called nerve cells

- are highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses) from one part of
the body to another.
- Receive stimuli, conduct action potentials, transmit signals
Cell body / Soma or Perikaryon
- contains a single nucleus; source of information for gene expression
- metabolic center of the neuron.
Nissl bodies
- rough ER found in the cell body of a neuron
Neurofibrils
- intermediate filaments that are important in maintaining cell shape and support
Microtubules
- assist in moving materials between the cell body and axon
Nerve fiber - is a general term for any neuronal process (extension) that emerges from
the cell body of a neuron.
Nerves - are bundles of axons
Dendrites
- small cellular processes
- extensions of the cell body
- receive information from other neurons
- transmit the info toward the neuron cell body
Axon
- single longer cell process
- conduct action potentials from one part of the brain or spinal cord to another
part
- carries the information away from the cell in the form of bioelectric signals
called nerve impulses
Axon hillock
- where the axon leaves the neuron cell body
- single axon arises from a cone-shaped area of the neuron cell body
The part of the axon closest to the axon hillock is the initial segment. In most neurons,
nerve impulses arise at the junction of the axon hillock and the initial segment, an area
called the trigger zone, from which they travel along the axon to their destination.
Axoplasm - cytoplasm of an axon
Axolemma - plasma membrane of an axon
Axon Terminals - axon and its collaterals end by dividing into many fine processes
Synapse - site of communication between two neurons or between a neuron and an
effector cell
Synaptic Cleft - Each axon terminal is separated from the next neuron by a tiny gap
Neurotransmitter - actual conveyors of this neural information; transmit signals from
nerve cells to target cells
Anterograde – movement away from the cell body
Retrograde – movement toward the cell body
Myelin
- long nerve fibers are covered with a whitish, fatty material
- protects and insulates the fibers and increases the transmission rate of nerve
impulses.
Schwann cells – form a myelin sheath (increases speed of impulse transmission)
Nodes of Ranvier - Narrow gaps in the myelin sheath between Schwann cells
Collateral axons – branches of axons
Supporting Cells
Neuroglia
Supporting cells in the CNS are “lumped together” as neuroglia (nu-rog′le-ah), literally,
“nerve glue,” also simply called either glia (gle′ah) or glial cells.
- Non-neuronal cells of the CNS + PNS
- More numerous than neurons
- Retain the ability to divide
Help form a protective permeability barrier between the blood and the brain and spinal
cord, they phagocytize foreign substances, they produce cerebrospinal fluid, and they
form myelin sheaths around axons
The CNS glia include the following:
1. Astrocytes
- abundant star-shaped cells
- stimulate/inhibit the signaling activity of nearby neurons;
- help limit damage to neural tissue; beneficial and detrimental responses to
tissue damage in the CNS.
Blood brain barrier – protects neurons from toxic substances in the blood; allows
exchange of waster products + nutrients
2. Ependymal cells – produce cerebrospinal fluid; help move the cerebrospinal fluid
through the CNS
3. Microglia
- small cells with slender processes that give off numerous spinelike
projections.
- act as immune cells of the CNS’ protect the brain by removing bacteria and cell
debris
4 – 5. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS) – provide an insulating
material that surrounds axon

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Neural Signaling - Communication among neurons
1. Reception – stimuli received by visual receptors in the eye
2. Transmission – sensory neurons transmit info to CNS
3. Integration – info given is interpreted and an appropriate response is determined
4. Transmission – the CNS transmits info to motor neurons
5. Actual response – muscle/glands receive info and instruction from motor neurons
Myelin Sheaths - Highly specialized insulating layer of cells
Unmyelinated axons – action potentials are conducted slowly because in travels along
the entire axon
Myelinating axons – action potentials are conducted rapidly by salutatory conduction
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin sheath; where ion movement can occur
Organization of Nervous Tissue
Gray Matter – groups of neuron cell bodies + their dendrites; very little myelin
In the CNS:
Cortex – GM on the surface of the brain
Nuclei – GM located deeper within the brain
In the PNS;
Ganglion – a cluster of neuron cell bodies
White Matter – bundles of parallel axons + myelin sheaths
In the CNS:
Nerve tracts – conduction pathways; propagate action potentials from
one area of the CNS to another
In the PNS:
Nerves – bundles of axons + connective tissue sheaths
2. Differentiate the types of neurons and give examples for each.
Types of Neurons
Sensory Neuron - afferent neurons; conduct action potentials toward the CNS
Motor Neuron – efferent neurons; conduct action potentials away from the CNS
Interneurons – conduct action potentials within the CNS from neuron to another

The Three Major Structural Categories

1. Multipolar neurons – many dendrites + a single axon
Ex: neurons in the brain and spinal cord are of this type, as well as all motor neurons
2. Bipolar neurons – two processes: 1 dendrite + 1 axon
Ex: They are found in the retina of the eye, the inner ear, and the olfactory area (olfact =
to smell) of the brain
3. Pseudo-unipolar neurons – single process that divides into into two branches a
short distance from the cell body: extends to the periphery + extends to the CNS
3. Discuss the structure and function of the four glial cells.

4. Explain the resting membrane potential. Describe the role of the potassium
leak channel and the sodium- potassium pump.
Resting Membrane Potential
Polarized cell membrane – uneven distribution of charge
Resting membrane potential – uneven charge distribution in an unstimulated/resting cell;
polarized
Ø Higher concentration of K+ inside CM (cell membrane)
Ø Higher concentration of Na+ outside CM
Ø Greater permeability of CM to K+ than to Na+
Leak channels – always open
Gated channels – closed until opened by specific signals
Chemically gated channels – opened by neurotransmitters
Voltage gated channels – opened by a change in membrane potential
Sodium potassium pump – required to maintain the greater concentration of Na+ outside the
CM and K+ inside

*Potassium (K(+)) channels are membrane proteins that allow rapid and selective flow
of K(+) ions across the cell membrane, generating electrical signals in neurons. Thus,
K(+) channels play a critical role in determining the neuronal excitability.

5. Put in a diagram the events that generate an action potential.

Action potential – constitution of depolarization and repolarization
Excitable cells – RMP changes in response to stimuli that activate gated ion channels
Local current – Na+ diffuses quickly into cell
Depolarization – a change that causes the inside of the CM to become positive
Repolarization - membrane potential returns toward the resting state and becomes
more negative
Afterpotential - the plasma membrane may be slightly hyperpolarized for a short period
Local potential – result of depolarization
Threshold value – attainable local potential
Hyperpolarization – the charge on the CM briefly becomes more negative than the
RMP
All-or-none fashion – threshold is reached = action potential occurs; if the threshold is
not reached = action potential doesn’t occur
Continuous conduction – the action potential is conducted along the entire axon CM
Saltatory conduction – action potentials jump from one node of Ranvier to the next
Step 1 illustrates the status of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels in a resting cell.
Steps 2–5 show how the channels open and close to produce an action potential. Next
to each step (far right), a graph shows in red the membrane potential resulting from the
condition of the ion channels
6. Describe the events that happen in between synapse. Start with an action
potential in the presynaptic neuron and end with the generation of an action
potential in the postsynaptic neuron.
* At a synapse, one neuron sends a message to a target neuron—another cell. At a
chemical synapse, an action potential triggers the presynaptic neuron to release
neurotransmitters. These molecules bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell and make
it more or less likely to fire an action potential.
Synapse - is a region where communication occurs between two neurons or between a
neuron and an effector cell (muscle cell or glandular cell)
Presynaptic (sending) neuron - refers to a nerve cell that carries a nerve impulse
toward a synapse: It is the cell that sends a signal.
Postsynaptic (receiving) neuron - that carries a nerve impulse away from a synapse
or an effector cell that responds to the impulse at the synapse.
Synaptic cleft – space separating the presynaptic & postsynaptic membrane
Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers
Synaptic vesicles – where neurotransmitters are stored
Hyperpolarized – the inside of the postsynaptic cell tends to become more negative
Electrical synapses - occur between cells connected by gap junctions
Chemical synapse - occurs where a chemical messenger, called a neurotransmitter, is
used to communicate a message to an effector.
7. List the different neurotransmitters. Describe their primary function.
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Reflexes
Reflex – an involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and
transmitted to the CNS
Reflex arc – neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs
 Sensory receptor
 Sensory neuron
 Interneurons
 Motor neuron
 Effector organ (muscle or glands)
Somatic reflexes include all reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
Ex: When you quickly pull your hand away from a hot object, a somatic reflex is
working.
Autonomic reflexes regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the heart, and glands.
Ex: regulate such body functions as digestion, elimination, blood pressure, and
sweating.
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8. Compare and contrast the converging and diverging pathways. Give an

example for each.
Neuronal Pathways
Converging pathway – two or more neurons synapse with the same neuron
Ex: a converging neural pathway would be the convergence of neurons from rods in the
retina of an eye.
Diverging pathway – the axon from one neuron divides and synapses with more than
one other neuron
Ex: controlling several muscles in the hand so that the fingers can work together.
Summation – allows integration of multiple sub threshold local potentials; brings the
membrane potential to threshold and trigger an action potential
Spatial summation – local potentials originate from diff. locations on the postsynaptic
neuron
Temporal summation – local potentials overlap in time
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1. Name the three layers of meninges around the brain and spinal cord. Describe
each layer.
Meninges are three protective, connective tissue coverings that encircle the spinal cord
and brain. From superficial to deep they are the (1) dura mater, (2) arachnoid mater,
and (3) pia mater
Dura mater “tough or hard mother,”
- is a double-layered membrane where it surrounds the brain
- The most superficial of the tree spinal meninges is a thick strong layer composed of
dense irregular connective tissue.
 Epidural space – bet. the dura mater & the vertebrae
 Epidural anesthesia – clinically important as the injection site of spinal nerves;
given to women during childbirth

Arachnoid mater “spider,”

- It is called the arachnoid mater because of its spider’s web arrangement of delicate
collagen fibers and some elastic fibers.
-It is deep to the dura mater and is continuous through the foramen magnum with the
arachnoid mater of the brain
 Subdural space – space bet. the dura mater and the arachnoid mater; contains
small amt. of serous fluid
 Spinal block – to inject anesthetic into the area v Spinal tap – to take a sample
of CSF

Pia mater “gentle mother”

- This innermost meninx is a thin transparent connective tissue layer that adheres to
the surface of the spinal cord and brain.
- It consists of thin squamous to cuboidal cells within interlacing bundles of collagen
fibers and some fine elastic fibers.
- very tightly bound to the surface of the brain and spinal cord; filled with CSF and
contains blood vessels
 Subarachnoid space – bet. the arachnoid and pia matter
2. Elaborate the function of the brain structures.
a. Cerebrum
- which develops from the anterior portion of the forebrain, is the largest part of the
mature brain.
- conscious activity including perception, emotion, thought, and planning
- It consists of two hemispheres divided by a fissure – corpus callosum
- It includes the cerebral cortex, the medullary body, and basal ganglia
 Cerebral cortex is the layer of the brain often referred to as gray matter because it
has cell bodies and synapses but no myelin
 The cortex (thin layer of tissue) is gray because nerves in this area lack
the insulation or white fatty myelin sheath that makes most other parts of
the brain appear to be white.
 The cortex covers the outer portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of the cerebrum and
cerebellum
 The cortex consists of folded bulges called gyri (ridge tissue) separated
by shallow grooves called sulci and less numerous are the deeper
grooves called fissures (separate large region of the brain)
 Medullary body – is the white matter of the cerebrum and consists of myelinated
axons o
 Commissural fibers – conduct impulses between the hemispheres and form
corpus callosum
 Projection fibers – conduct impulse in and out of the cerebral hemispheres
 Association fibers – conduct impulses within the hemispheres
 Basal ganglia – masses of gray matter in each hemisphere which are involved in
the control of voluntary muscle movements
- right and left hemispheres
The brain is divided into symmetrical left and right hemispheres. Each hemisphere is in
charge of the opposite side of the body, so your right brain controls your left hand. The
right hemisphere also takes in sensory input from your left side and vice versa.
-The brain is segmented into regions called lobes
- lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, insula
Frontal Lobe
 Control of voluntary motor functions, motivation, aggression, mood, olfactory
reception
 Primary motor area: consciously move our skeletal muscles
 Broca’s area – speech center § Prefrontal area – responsible for executive
functions
Parietal Lobe
 General Sensory Area – receives info from the sensory receptors in the skin and
joints
 Wernicke’s area – sensory speech area
Occipital Lobe
 Receiving and perceiving visual input
 Primary visual area – receives visual info
 Visual association area – portion where visual info is integrated
Temporal Lobe
 Primary auditory area – center for reception of auditory messages
 Auditory association area – where auditory messages are integrated
 Psychic cortex – abstract thoughts and judgments
Insula

 A triangular area of the cerebral cortex that lies deep within the lateral cerebral
fissure, under the parietal, frontal, and temporal lobes.
 It plays a role in a variety of homeostatic functions related to basic survival
needs, such as taste, visceral sensation, and autonomic control. 
 The insula controls autonomic functions through the regulation of the sympathetic
and parasympathetic systems.
Longitudinal fissure – divides the cerebrum into left and right hemispheres
Corpus callosum – connects the right and left hemispheres
Central sulcus – separates the frontal and parietal lobes
Lateral fissure – separates the temporal love from the rest
b. Diencephalon
The diencephalon is located between the brainstem and the cerebrum.

Includes masses of gray matter (thalamus and hypothalamus)

- thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
Thalamus
 Relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex
 Relays impulses between cerebral motor cortex and lower motor centers
 Involved in memory
Hypothalamus
 Chief integration center of autonomic (involuntary) nervous system
 Regulates body temperature, food intake, water balance, and thirst
 Regulates hormonal output of anterior pituitary gland and acts as an endocrine
organ (producing ADH and oxytocin)
Epithalamus
 Consists of pineal gland (secretes melatonin) and habenular nuclei (involved in
olfaction)
Limbic system—A functional system:
 Includes cerebral and diencephalon structures (e.g., hypothalamus and anterior
thalamic nuclei)
 Mediates emotional response; involved in memory processing
c. Brain stem
 Connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the brain
 Controls the heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing
 Damage can cause death

- midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

Midbrain
 Contains visual and auditory reflex centers
 Contains subcortical motor centers
 Contains nuclei for cranial nerves III and IV; contains projection fibers (e.g., fibers
of the pyramidal tracts)
Pons
 Relays information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum
 Cooperates with the medullary centers to control respiratory rate and depth
 Contains nuclei of cranial nerves V–VII; contains projection fibers
Medulla oblongata
 Relays ascending sensory pathway impulses from skin and proprioceptors
 Contains nuclei controlling heart rate, blood vessel diameter, respiratory rate,
vomiting, etc.
 Relays sensory information to the cerebellum
 Contains nuclei of cranial nerves VIII–XII; contains projection fibers
 Site of decussation (crossover) of pyramids
Reticular formation—A functional system
 Maintains cerebral cortical alertness; filters out repetitive stimuli
 Helps regulate skeletal and visceral muscle activity
d. Cerebellum
 Processes information from cerebral motor cortex, proprioceptors, and visual and
equilibrium pathways
 Provides “instructions” to cerebral motor cortex and subcortical motor centers,
resulting in smooth, coordinated skeletal muscle movements
 Responsible for proper balance and posture
3. Discuss the structure of the spinal cord. Explain how the spinal nerve is
connected to the spinal cord.
Spinal Cord
 the major communication link between the brain and the PNS inferior to the head.
 It integrates incoming information and produces responses through reflex mechanisms
 Extends from the foramen magnum to the 2nd lumbar vertebra
Spinal Nerve
 arise along the spinal cord; contains mixed nerves
 31 Pairs
o 8 Cervical
o 12 Thoracic
o 5 Lumbar
o 5 Sacral
o 1 Coccygeal
 Each spinal nerve is a bundle of axons, Schwann cells, and connective tissue
sheaths.
Cauda equina – inferior end of the SC; spinal nerves exiting there resemble a horse’s tail
Cervical enlargement in the inferior cervical region corresponds to the location where nerve
fibers that supply the upper limbs enter and leave the spinal cord
Lumbosacral enlargement in the inferior thoracic, lumbar, and superior sacral regions is the
site where the nerve fibers supplying the lower limbs enter or leave the spinal cord.
Conus Medullaris
 Immediately inferior to the lumbosacral enlargement, the spinal cord tapers to form a
cone-like region
 Its tip is the inferior end of the spinal cord and extends to the level of the second lumbar
vertebra
4. Trace the CSF pathway.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless liquid composed primarily of water that protects
the brain and spinal cord from chemical and physical injuries
CSF flows through the ventricles and subarachnoid space, as shown by the white arrows.
Arrows going through the foramina in the wall and roof of the fourth ventricle represent the CSF
entering the subarachnoid space. CSF passes back into the blood through the arachnoid
granulations (white and black arrows), which penetrate the dural sinus. The black arrows
show the direction of blood flow in the sinuses. Yellow indicates CSF; blue indicates venous
blood.
Ventricles
 Fluid filled cavities
Lateral ventricle – relatively large cavity in each cerebral hemisphere
Third ventricle – a smaller, midline cavity
Fourth ventricle – located at the base of the cerebellum
Cerebral aqueduct – a narrow canal that connects the 3rd and 4th ventricle
Cerebrospinal fluid
 Provides a protective cushion around the CNS
Choroid plexus – produces CSF; specialized structures made of ependymal cells
Arachnoid villi – structures that project from the arachnoid layer; where blood is reabsorbed
Hydrocephalus – accumulation of CSF in the ventricles

5. List the different cranial nerves. Describe the mode of assessment for each.
6. Differentiate the function of the sensory neuron and motor neuron.
Sensory Neuron (afferent) “to go toward.”
 Neuron that transmits an impulse from a receptor to the central nervous system
 Sensory neurons keep us informed about what is happening both inside and outside
the body.
Motor Neuron (efferent)
 Neurons carrying impulses from the CNS to the viscera and/or muscles and glands
 cells in the brain and spinal cord that allow us to move, speak, swallow and breathe by
sending commands from the brain to the muscles that carry out these functions

7. List the innervation of each spinal nerve.

(a) Nerves of the spinal cord and their functions. The regions are color-coded. (b) Letters and numbers
indicate the spinal nerves innervating a given region of skin (dermatome)

8. Compare and contrast sympathetic from parasympathetic response.

The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) controls homeostasis and the body at
rest and is responsible for the body's "rest and digest" function.
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) controls the body's responses to a perceived
threat and is responsible for the "fight or flight" response.
Similarities:
 Both are the part of ANS (autonomic nervous system)
 Both originate from the spinal cord.
 Both have huge influence on physiological process of the body such as respiration,
circulation, digestion, urination and reproduction.

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1. Describe structural receptor types and functional receptor types.
Sensation is the activation of sensory receptor cells at the level of the stimulus
Perception is the central processing of sensory stimuli into a meaningful pattern
Transduction is the process that converts a sensory signal to an electrical signal to be
processed in a specialized area in the brain
Reception is the first step in the processing of sensation and is dependent on the receptor type,
stimulus, and receptive field.
Receptors 
 are the cells or structures that detect sensations.
 Receptor cells can be classified into types on the basis of three different criteria: cell
type, position, and function
Structural Receptor Types
The cells that interpret information about the environment can be either:
(1) a neuron that has a free nerve ending, with dendrites embedded in tissue that would
receive a sensation
2) a neuron that has an encapsulated ending in which the sensory nerve endings are
encapsulated in connective tissue that enhances their sensitivity
(3) a specialized receptor cell, which has distinct structural components that interpret a specific
type of stimulus 
Receptors can be classified is based on their location relative to the stimuli:
Exteroceptor is a receptor that is located near a stimulus in the external environment, such as
the receptors that are located in the skin
Interoceptor is one that interprets stimuli from internal organs and tissues, such as the
receptors that sense the increase in blood pressure in the aorta or carotid sinus.
Proprioceptor is a receptor located near a moving part of the body, such as a muscle, that
interprets the positions of the tissues as they move

Functional Receptor Types

A third classification of receptors is by the stimulus that is used to initiation the process of
transduction.  
Chemical stimuli can be interpreted by a chemoreceptor that interprets chemical stimuli, such
as an object’s taste or smell
Osmoreceptors respond to solute concentrations of body fluids.
Nociceptor - pain is primarily a chemical sense that interprets the presence of chemicals from
tissue damage, or similar intense stimuli
Mechanoreceptor - Physical stimuli, such as pressure and vibration, as well as the sensation of
sound and body position (balance)
Light is detected by photoreceptors in the eyes
Another physical stimulus that has its own type of receptor is temperature, which is sensed
through a thermoreceptor that is either sensitive to temperatures above (heat) or below (cold)
normal body temperature.

2. Discuss the functional parts of the five senses. Name and identify their specific
receptors.
Sight
Sight or vision (ophthalmoception) is the ability of the eye(s) to focus and detect images of
visible light on photoreceptors in the retina that generate electrical nerve impulses for varying
colors, hues, and brightness.
There are two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones.
Rods are very sensitive to light, but do not distinguish colors.
Cones distinguish colors, but are less sensitive to dim light.
The inability to see is called blindness.
Hearing

Hearing or audition (audioception) is the sense of sound perception.

Mechanoreceptors in the inner ear turn vibration motion into electrical nerve pulses.
The vibrations are mechanically conducted from the eardrum through a series of tiny
bones to hair-like fibers in the inner ear that detect the mechanical motion of the fibers.

Sound can also be detected as vibrations conducted through the body by tactition.

The inability to hear is called deafness or hearing impairment.

Taste

Taste (gustaoception) refers to the ability to detect substances such as food, certain
minerals, poisons, etc.

The sense of taste is often confused with the concept of flavor, which is a combination
of taste and smell perception. Flavor depends on odor, texture, and temperature as well
as on taste.

Humans receive tastes through sensory organs called taste buds, or gustatory
calyculi, concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue.

Five basic tastes exist: sweet, bitter, sour, salty, and umami.

The inability to taste is called ageusia.

Smell

The olfactory system is the sensory system used for the sense of smell (olfaction).

This sense is mediated by specialized sensory cells of the nasal cavity.  In humans,
olfaction occurs when odorant molecules bind to specific sites on the olfactory
receptors in the nasal cavity. These receptors are used to detect the presence of smell.

They come together at a structure (the glomerulus) that transmits signals to the
olfactory bulb in the brain.

The inability to smell is called anosmia.

Touch

Touch or somatosensation (tactioception, tactition, or mechanoreception), is a

perception resulting from the activation of neural receptors in the skin, including hair
follicles, tongue, throat, and mucosa.

A variety of pressure receptors respond to variations in pressure (firm, brushing,

sustained, etc.).
The touch sense of itching is caused by insect bites or allergies that involve special itch-
specific neurons in the skin and spinal cord.

The loss or impairment of the ability to feel anything touched is called tactile
anesthesia.

Paresthesia is a sensation of tingling, pricking, or numbness of the skin that may result
from nerve damage and may be permanent or temporary.

3. Indicate the action of the extrinsic eye muscle.

Extrinsic eye muscles (also called extraocular muscles) are attached to the outside of the
eyeball and enable the eyes to move in all directions of sight.

4. Identify assessment methods for the special senses

Taste
Taste function in various areas of the tongue and oral cavity can be measured using a spatial
test. Four standardized sizes of filter paper soaked with a strong concentration of four basic
tastes are placed randomly on the four quadrants of the tongue and both sides of the soft
palate.
Touch
Sensitivity to light touch in a particular area can be checked using gentle contact with a fingertip
or a wisp of cotton wool. The two-point discrimination test is used to generate a more detailed
sensory map of tactile receptors
Hearing
An audiological assessment is a painless, noninvasive hearing test that measures a person's
ability to hear different sounds, pitches or frequencies. The diagnostic test is performed in a
soundproof booth under headphones.
Sight
Visual acuity tests are the most common tests used to assess vision. They measure the eye's
ability to see details at near and distance. The tests involve reading letters, numbers or symbols
of different sizes on an eye chart. Usually, each eye is tested by itself
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
1. List and briefly the function of the cardiovascular system.
Functions of Blood
1. Transportation
 Blood transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body and carbon
dioxide from the body cells to the lungs for exhalation.
 Blood also transports heat and waste products to various organs for elimination
from the body
2. Regulation

 Circulating blood helps maintain homeostasis of all body fluids

3. Protection

 Blood can clot (become gel-like), which protects against its excessive loss from
the cardiovascular system after an injury

Function of the Heart

1. Generating blood pressure
 Contractions of the heart generate blood pressure, which is responsible for
moving blood through the blood vessels.
2. Routing blood.
 The heart separates the pulmonary and systemic circulations and ensures better
oxygenation of the blood flowing to the tissues.
3. Ensuring one-way blood flow
 The valves of the heart ensure a one-way flow of blood through the heart and
blood vessels.
4. Regulating blood supply
 The rate and force of heart contractions change to meet the metabolic needs of
the tissues, which vary depending on such conditions as rest, exercise, and
changes in body position
Function of the Circulatory System
1. Carries blood
 Blood vessels carry blood from the heart to almost all the body tissues and back
to the heart.
2. Exchanges nutrients, waste products, and gases with tissues
 Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from blood vessels to cells in all areas of the body.
Waste products and carbon dioxide diffuse from the cells, where they are
produced, to blood vessels.
3. Transports substances
 Hormones, components of the immune system, molecules required for
coagulation, enzymes, nutrients, gases, waste products, and other substances
are transported in the blood to all areas of the body.
4. Helps regulate blood pressure
 The circulatory system and the heart work together to maintain blood pressure
within a normal range of values.
5. Directs blood flow to tissues

 The circulatory system directs blood to tissues when increased blood flow is
required to maintain homeostasis.
2. Illustrate the circulatory structures and pathways.
Long black arrows indicate the systemic circulation, short blue arrows the pulmonary
circulation, and red arrows the hepatic portal circulation.
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1. Discuss cardiac output and stroke volume.
Cardiac Output

 the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle (or the right ventricle) into the
aorta (or pulmonary trunk) each minute.
 Cardiac output equals the stroke volume (SV)
 Calculated by product of Stroke Volume (SV) and Heart Rate (HR): CO
(mL/min) = stroke volume (SV) in mL/beat x heart rate (HR) in beats/min

Stroke Volume
 the volume of blood pumped during each heartbeat (cardiac cycle)
Three factors regulate stroke volume and ensure that the left and right ventricles
pump equal volumes of blood
(1) preload, the degree of stretch on the heart before it contracts
(2) contractility, the forcefulness of contraction of individual ventricular muscle
fibers; and
(3) afterload, the pressure that must be exceeded before ejection of blood from the
ventricles can occur.
2. Trace the pathway of blood through the heart.
The heart valves are indicated by circles; deoxygenated blood appears blue, and
oxygenated blood appears red.

3. Explain the transmission of cardiac impulse through the conduction system

Impulse generation is the first step in cardiac conduction. Cardiac conduction is the rate
at which electric impulses are conducted by the heart. These impulses make the heart
contract and then calming.
Heart conduction is the driving factor behind cardiac cycle. This cycle is the sequence of
occurrences when the heart beats. The atria and ventricles are relaxed during the
diastole phase of the cardiac cycle and blood goes into the atria and the ventricles.
4. Illustrate and discuss the cardiac cycle. Differentiate systole from diastole.
Systole (contraction)
 Contraction of the heart chambers during which blood leaves the chambers;
usually refers to ventricular contraction
Diastole (relaxation)
 Relaxation of the heart chambers, during which they fill with blood; usually refers
to ventricular relaxation
5. Compare and contrast the normal heart rate from the abnormal heart rate.
The normal pulse for healthy adults ranges from 60 to 100 beats per minute. The pulse
rate may fluctuate and increase with exercise, illness, injury, and emotions.
Abnormal heart rhythms can be described as a heart beating too fast (above 100
bpm) or slow (below 60 bpm), a fluttering sensation in the chest area or the skipping of
a heart beat. When electrical impulses in the heart become too fast, too slow, or
irregular they cause the heart to beat irregularly.
Causes:
Coronary artery disease, other heart problems and previous heart surgery. Narrowed
heart arteries, a heart attack, abnormal heart valves, prior heart surgery, heart failure,
cardiomyopathy and other heart damage are risk factors for almost any kind of
arrhythmia. High blood pressure.
6. Compare and contrast the normal heart sounds from the abnormal heart
sounds.
Normal Heart Sound
 The first heart sound (lub) is caused by the closing of the AV valves.
 The second heart sound (dup) occurs when the semilunar valves close at the
end of systole.
 The first heart sound is longer and louder than the second heart sound, which
tends to be short and sharp.
Abnormal Heart Sound
 Abnormal or unusual heart sounds are called heart murmurs.
 These sounds can include rasping, whooshing, or blowing sounds.
 Blood flows silently as long as the flow is smooth and uninterrupted. If it strikes
obstructions, its flow becomes turbulent and generates sounds, such as heart
murmurs, that can be heard with a stethoscope.
7. Discuss the nervous system function in maintain cardiac function.
8. Differentiate parasympathetic and sympathetic effect to cardiovascular
function

Sympathetic nervous system activation will stimulate the SA and AV nodes to

increase the heart rate, which will increase cardiac output. Parasympathetic
nervous system activation will conversely act on the SA and AV nodes to decrease the
heart rate, which will decrease cardiac output.

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1. Compare and contrast the function of the arteries, capillaries and veins.
Arteries
 strong, elastic vessels adapted for carrying the blood away from the heart under
high pressure
 These vessels subdivide into progressively thinner tubes and eventually give rise
to the finer branched arterioles
Capillaries
 are the smallest diameter blood vessels
 they connect the smallest arterioles and the smallest venules
  the thin walls of capillaries allow the exchange of substances between the blood
and body tissues
Veins
 which carry blood back to the heart, are conducting vessels, follow pathways
that roughly parallel those of the arteries.
 are the microscopic vessels that continue from the capillaries and merge to
form veins
 Veins are classified by size as (1) venules, (2) small veins, or (3) medium or
large veins.
Venules - groups of capillaries within a tissue reunite to form small veins

2. Define the structural layers of the arteries and the veins. Discuss their
differences.

Artery walls are thick and strong to withstand pressure fluctuations. They expand and recoil as
the heart beats. Vein walls are thinner, their lumens are larger, and they are equipped with
valves. These modifications reflect the low-pressure nature of veins.
3. Illustrate the systemic and the pulmonary circuit.
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Function of Respiratory System
1. Regulation of blood pH.
 The respiratory system can alter blood pH by changing blood CO2 levels.
2. Production of chemical mediators.
 The lungs produce an enzyme called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE),
which is an important component of blood pressure regulation
3. Voice production.
 Air moving past the vocal folds makes sound and speech possible.
4. Olfaction.
 The sensation of smell occurs when airborne molecules are drawn into the nasal
cavity
5. Protection.
 The respiratory system provides protection against some microorganisms by
preventing them from entering the body and removing them from respiratory
surfaces
Anatomy
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT - External nose, nasal cavity, pharynx
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT - Larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

1. Identify the structures of upper respiratory and lower respiratory tract

structure. Explain each of their function.
Upper Respiratory
Nose
- Consists of the external nose and nasal cavity
- Part of face centered above the mouth and inferior to the space between the eyes
- Nostrils provide entrance to nasal cavity; internal hairs begin to filter incoming air
FUNCTION OF NASAL CAVITY
- Cleans the air - Contains the olfactory epithelium
- Serves as a passageway for air - Helps determine voice sound.
- Humidifies and warms the air
EXTERNAL NOSE – visible structure that forms a prominent feature of the face
EXTERNAL NARES (nostrils) – external openings of the nose
NASAL CAVITY – Hollow space behind nose; extends from the nares to the choanae
NASAL SEPTUM – a partition dividing the nasal cavity into right and left parts
INTERNAL NARES (CHOANAE)
 Shell-Like bone extending outward from the wall of the nasal cavity; a turbinate
bone
 increase the surface area of the nasal cavity
 helping the air churn through the nasal cavity
PALATE - roof of the mouth
HARD PALATE - where the palate is supported by bone
SOFT PALATE - unsupported posterior part
PARANASAL SINUSES – air-filled spaces within bone; drain mucus
NASOLACRIMAL DUCTS – tear drainage from the surface of the eye
SNEEZE REFLEX – dislodges foreign substances from the nasal cavity

PHARYNX (THROAT)
- Chamber posterior to the nasal cavity, oral cavity, and larynx
- Common passageway for both the respiratory and digestive systems.
- Passageway for air moving from nasal cavity to larynx and for food moving from oral
cavity to esophagus
THREE REGIONS:
1. NASOPHARYNX – superior part
a. SOFT PALATE – an incomplete muscles and connective tissue partition
separating the nasopharynx from the oropharynx
 b. UVULA – posterior extension of the soft palate
c. PHARYNGEAL TONSIL – helps defend the body against infection
2. OROPHARYNX – extends from the uvula to the epiglottis
a. PALATINE TONSILS – located in the lateral walls near the border of the oral
cavity and the oropharynx
b. LINGUAL TONSIL – located on the surface of the posterior part of the tongue
3. LARYNGOPHARYNX – passes posterior to the larynx and extends from the tip of the
epiglottis to the esophagus; lined with stratified squamous epithelium and ciliated
columnar epithelium.

2. Describe the cellular structure that lines the respiratory tract.

Respiratory epithelial cells line the respiratory tract from trachea to bronchi into
bronchioles and alveolar sacs.
 The primary functions of the respiratory epithelium, depending on their origin, is
to moisten, protect the airway tract from potential pathogens, infections and
tissue injury, and facilitate gas exchange.
The respiratory epithelium in trachea and bronchi is pseudostratified and primarily
consists of three main cell types – cilia cells, goblet cells, and basal cells.
 The ciliated cells are located across the apical surface and facilitate the
movement of mucus across the airway tract.
 The goblet cells produce and secrete mucous to trap pathogens and debris
within the airway tract.
 Basal cells are progenitor cells that differentiate into cells types found within the
epithelium.
o Basal cells respond to injury of the airway and subsequently differentiate
to restore a healthy epithelial cell layer.

3. Compare and contrast of the conducting and respiratory zone.

Conducting Zone
 consists of a series of interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and within
the lungs.
 these include the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles
 o their function is to filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the
lungs

Respiratory Zone
 consists of tubes and tissues within the lungs where gas exchange occurs
 these include the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and
alveoli
o are the main sites of gas exchange between air and blood

4. Illustrate the gross anatomy of the lungs and discuss each function.
 The lungs are pyramid-shaped, paired organs that are connected to the trachea
by the right and left bronchi; on the inferior surface, the lungs are bordered by the
diaphragm. 
- The diaphragm is the flat, dome-shaped muscle located at the base of the lungs and
thoracic cavity
-The right lung is shorter and wider than the left lung, and the left lung occupies a
smaller volume than the right.
Cardiac notch - is an indentation on the surface of the left lung, and it allows space for
the heart 
Apex of the lung - is the superior region, whereas the base is the opposite region near
the diaphragm.
Hilum - is a region on the medial surface of the lung where structures, such as the main
bronchus, blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels, enter or exit the lung
Lobes - each lung is composed of smaller units.
The right lung consists of three lobes: the superior, middle, and inferior lobes.
The left lung consists of two lobes: the superior and inferior lobes
Fissures - separate these lobes from each other.
Oblique Fissure – both lungs
Horizontal Fissure – the right lung also has this
Pulmonary veins - transport oxygenated blood back to the heart from the lungs
Pulmonary arteries - move deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
Primary bronchus - represents the airway in the respiratory tract that conducts air into
the lungs.

5. Compare and contrast the left and the right lung.

The right and left lungs differ in size and shape to accommodate other organs that
encroach on the thoracic region. The right lung consists of three lobes and is shorter
than the left lung, due to the position of the liver underneath it. The left lung consists of
two lobes and is longer and narrower than the right lung. The left lung has a concave
region on the mediastinal surface called the cardiac notch that allows space for the
heart.

6. Describe the lung pleura and its function.

Pleura (pleurae) - a serous membrane that surrounds the lung.
- The right and left pleurae, which enclose the right and left lungs, respectively, are
separated by the mediastinum

Pleurae consist of two layers:

Visceral Pleura - the layer that is superficial to the lungs, and extends into and lines the
lung fissures
Parietal Pleura - the outer layer that connects to the thoracic wall, the mediastinum,
and the diaphragm. 
- The visceral and parietal pleurae connect to each other at the hilum
Pleural cavity - the space between the visceral and parietal layers.

The pleurae perform two major functions: They produce pleural fluid and create
cavities that separate the major organs.
Pleural fluid 
 secreted by mesothelial cells from both pleural layers and acts to lubricate their
surfaces. 
 lubrication reduces friction between the two layers during breathing
 pleural fluid causes the lungs to enlarge when the thoracic wall expands during
ventilation, allowing the lungs to fill with air
1. Compare and contrast the concept of ventilation and respiration
Respiration - the process of gas exchange in the body
Pulmonary ventilation.
 Air must move into and out of the lungs so that the gases in the air sacs (alveoli)
of the lungs are continuously refreshed. This process of pulmonary ventilation is
commonly called breathing.
External respiration.
 Gas exchange (oxygen loading and carbon dioxide unloading) between the
pulmonary blood and alveoli must take place. Remember that in external
respiration, gas exchanges are being made between the blood and the body
exterior.
Respiratory gas transport.
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide must be transported to and from the lungs and tissue
cells of the body via the bloodstream.
Internal respiration.

 At systemic capillaries, gas exchanges must be made between the blood and
tissue cells. In internal respiration, gas exchanges are occurring between the
blood and cells inside the body
Cellular respiration

 Oxygen (O2) use and production of carbon dioxide (CO2) by body cells as part of
the process
 a microscopic process, taking place in the cells.

2. Describe the mechanism of breathing through:

 The ability to breathe—to have air enter the lungs during inspiration and air leave
the lungs during expiration—is dependent on the air pressure of the atmosphere
and the air pressure within the lungs.
 Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the flow of gases to
equalize the pressure.
a. Pressure relationships
Inspiration (or inhalation) and expiration (or exhalation) are dependent
on the differences in pressure between the atmosphere and the lungs
Pressure is determined by the volume of the space occupied by a gas and is influenced
by resistance.
Boyle’s law describes the relationship between volume and pressure in a gas at a
constant temperature
Atmospheric pressure is the amount of force that is exerted by gases in the air
surrounding any given surface, such as the body
Intra-alveolar pressure is the pressure of the air within the alveoli, which changes
during the different phases of breathing
Intrapleural pressure is the pressure of the air within the pleural cavity, between the
visceral and parietal pleurae
Transpulmonary pressure is the difference between the intrapleural and intra-alveolar
pressures, and it determines the size of the lungs. A higher transpulmonary pressure
corresponds to a larger lung.
b. Factors affecting ventilation
Airway resistance
 is the resistance to flow of air caused by friction with the airways, which includes the
conducting zone for air, such as the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.
 The main determinants of airway resistance are the size of the airway and the properties
of the flow of air itself.
Surface Tension of Alveolar Fluid

 The surface tension of alveolar fluid is regulated by pulmonary surfactant, allowing

efficient respiration.

3. Outline the process of air movement in and outside of the lungs

4. Identify the respiratory muscles and their function
5. Outline the process of gas exchange
6. Create a diagram illustrating the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
respiratory system
7. Create a table describing lung volumes and capacities

8. Describe the control of respiration

9. Differentiate the process of external and internal respiration