Chapter 2
Neurons (LO 2.2)
Cells of the Nervous System
 Neurons or nerve cell- billions
 Nervous system 2 basic division
 CNS
 PNS
The Nervous System: An overview (LO 2.1)
 CNS- contains the brain and spinal
cord.
 Communicates with
the rest of the body
though nerves.
 PNS- all the nerves that branch out
from the CNS including the muscles
and organs.
 Sensory neurons- specialized cell in
the PNS that control Information in
the form of light, sound waves, odor,
taste or contact with objects.
 Motor Neurons- Control movements
that are accomplished by the
contraction of muscles.
 Transmit Impulses
 Carry Signals
 Found in muscles
 Specialized type of
brain cell
 Interneurons- found between sensory
and motor neurons
2 types of Interneurons
1.) Local Interneurons- analyze
small pieces of information
2.) Relay Interneurons- connect
circuits of local interneurons in one
region of brain with those in other
regions.
 Neurons come in many shapes and
varieties according to the job they
perform.
 The 4 structures or region of neurons
1. Cell body (soma)
2. Dendrites
3. Axon
4. Terminal Buttons
(1) Soma- contains the nucleus; life of the cell
(2) Dendrites- receiver of message; antennas
like; receive message from other neurons:
receive neural messages that will be
transmitted across synapse.
(3) Axon- long slender tube; covered by
myelin sheath; carries the basic message,
action potential; come in different shapes and
sizes.
 Action potential- brief pulse;
splits but not diminish in
size; main electrical event.
(4) Terminal Buttons- axons end branches;
secrete chemical called neurotransmitter.
 Can form synapses on the
membrane of the dendrites
or soma.
 Neurotransmitter – either excites or
inhibits; helps to determine whether an
action potential occurs in its axon;
releasing chemical in the synapse.
 Axoplasmic transport- active process
that propels substances along
microtubule “tracks” that run inside
the length of axon.
  Cytoskeleton- gives neuron a shape;
2 types of axoplasmic transport
made of 3 kinds of protein;
1.) Anterograde- movement from soma to
terminal buttons; Means front; helped my
molecule protein called “kinesin”. - Microfilaments
- Intermediate
 Remarkably fast: 500 mm per day fibers
2.) Retrograde- movement from terminal
buttons to soma; helped my molecule protein - Microtubules
called “dynein” (thickest)

 Half fast as anterograde  Cytoplasm- fluid, jelly like: filled the

inside of the cell.
Kinesin Dynein
Organelles
Resemble a pair of Carries substance
legs & feet attach from the terminal  Nucleus- round or oval in structure;
to the item being buttons to the found in soma
transported down soma.
the axon.  Nucleolus- responsible for ribosome
production
Other cell structures
 Chromosomes- consist the DNA,
 Cell membrane- boundary of neuron; mRNA
consist of double layer of lipid
molecules.  Endoplasmic Reticulum- appears in
two forms: Rough ER and Smooth ER
 Proteins- some detects substances  RER- contains the ribosome
outside the cell; some control access  SER- provides channel for
to the interior of cell; act as segregation
transporter; serves as enzymes:
proteins that found in the neuron’s  Golgi Apparatus- Special form of
membrane are especially important in SER; serves as wrapping or packing
passing of information; Produced agent; produce lysosomes
through 2 step process
 Exocytosis- cell secretion process
1.) Transcription- information from  Lysosomes- contain enzymes that
the DNA that can’t leave nucleus will break down substances that are no
be transcribed into portable form: longer needed.
mRNA
 Mitochondria- powerplants of
2.) Translation- the information takes neurons: Provide special molecule
by mRNA will be taken to the called “ATP”
ribosome; the ribosome will use the
mRNA information to create proteins.

Supporting Cells (LO 2.3)

 Neurons have no means of storing

nutrients; has very high metabolism
 rate; need constant supply of nutrients
and oxygen.
CNS Supporting Cells
 Neuroglia- Most important supporting
cells; also called “nerve glue”.
 Glia- glue the CNS together
 Glial cells- surrounds neuron and hold
them in place; act as housekeepers
 Creates an environment conducive to
neural function.
3 most important types of Glial Cells
1.) Astrocytes- star cell; describe cells shape;
provides physical support; clean up debris in
brain; produce chemical that neuron needs;
provide nourishment to neurons: mostly
surround somatic and dendritic membranes of
neurons; receive glucose from capillaries and
break down to lactate; store carbohydrate
called “ glycogen”; matrix that holds neuron in
place
Processes
 Wrapped around blood vessels
 Wrapped around parts of neurons
 Phagocytosis- cellular process for
ingesting and eliminating particles.
2.) Oligodendrocytes- Provide support to
axons: Produce the myelin sheath; Produces
80% lipid and 20% proteins in the form of
tube surrounding the axon; Produce up to 50
segments of myelin
 Node of Ranvier- segments in between
axon.
3.) Microglia- smallest in glial cells; act as
phagocytes; representative of the immune
system in brain; responsible for inflammatory
reaction in response to brain damage.
PNS Supporting Cells
 Schwann cells- perform the same
function- supports axons and produce
myelin.
 Most axons here are myelinated
 Only provides myelin for one axon
 Glial cells support in PNS are
cooperative.
 Provides myelin and assist in neural
integration.
Axons 2 modes of Growth
First mode- elongate to reach their target.
Second mode- stop elongating and begin
sprouting terminal buttons because they have
reached their target.
 CNS and PNS results from differences
in the characteristics of supporting
cells, NOT FROM DIFFERENCES
IN THE AXONS.
Difference of Oligodendrocytes of the CNS
and Schwann cells of the PNS
 The chemical composition of the
myelin protein they produce.
The Blood Brain Barrier (LO 2.4)
Characteristics and Features
 Selective permeable
 specialized system of brain
microvascular endothelial cells
 Not uniformed throughout the nervous
system
Function
 Makes the extracellular fluid easy to
regulate.
Communication within a Neuron
 Ions- small charged particles; move
between the interior of the axon and
the fluid that surrounds.
2 basic types of Ions
- Cations (+)
Anions (-)
  Synapses- points of contact between
neurons where information is passed
from one neuron to the next.
Neural Communication: An
overview (LO 2.5)
 Excitatory Synapses(excitation) -
action potential in a presynaptic
neuron increases the probability of an
action potential occurring in a
postsynaptic cell.
 Inhibitory Synapses(inhibition)-
prevents hyperexcitability by
providing activity-dependent
inhibition.
Measuring Electrical Potentials of Axons
(LO2.6)
 Microelectrodes- Electrical recording
techniques using a small sensor;
record changes in electrical activity
across the axon membrane; Axon at
rest detects negative charge
 Most neurons are approximately 70
units (-70 mv)
 Membrane potential- Difference in
charge (positive or negative)
 Resting Potential- when the neuron is
at rest and not involved in
communicating
 Hyperpolarization- process of
making the membrane potential more
negative
 Hyperpolarized- inside of the axon
becomes more negative relative to the
outside.
 Depolarization- process of making
the membrane potential less negative
 Depolarized- Inside of the axon
becomes more positive.
 Action potential is a burst of rapid
depolarization followed by
hyperpolarization.
The membrane potential ( LO 2.7)
 Diffusion- Process whereby molecules
distribute themselves evenly in the
medium in which they are dissolved.
 Electrolytes- Property in substances
that are dissolved in water and split
into 2 parts each with an opposing
electrical charge.
 Electrical charge is the results of
balance between two opposing forces-
diffusion and electrostatic pressure.
 Particles with the same charge repels
 Particles with different charges
attracts each other.
 Electrostatic pressure- force exerted
by attraction and repulsion.
 Intracellular fluid- fluid within the
cells
 Extracellular fluid- fluid surrounding
the cell.
Important Ions
A
−¿¿
Organic Anion
C L−¿ ¿ Chloride Ions
N a+¿ ¿ Sodium Ions
k + ¿¿ Potassium ions
 K+ negatively charged proteins and
intermediate products of the cell’s
metabolic processes are found in the
intracellular fluid.
 The other 3 anions are found both in
intracellular and extracellular fluid.
 Na+ and Cl- are predominantly more
in extracellular fluid

 Fluid that surrounds our cell is similar
to sea water.
 Potassium Ion K+- concentrated
within the axon.
 Chloride ion Cl- - greatest
concentration outside the axon.
 The membrane is approximately 100
times more permeable in K+ than in
Na+.
 Sodium Potassium pump- transporter
found in the cell membrane.
The Action Potential (LO 2.8)
 Ion channels- type of protein
molecule that provides opening that
permits ions to enter or leave the cells.
 Voltage- dependent ion channels –
sodium channels, only opened by
changes in the membrane potential.
 Refractory- the channels become
blocked and cannot open again until
the membrane once more reaches the
resting potential.
Conduction of the Action Potential (LO 2.9)
 All or non-law- action potential either
occurs or do not occurs, and once
triggered, it is transmitted down the
axon to its end.
 Saltatory conduction- Hopping from
node to node.
2 advantages of Saltatory conduction
1.) Economic
2.) Advantage to myelin is speed
Structure of Synapses (LO 2.10)
 Synaptic transmission- primary
means of communication between
neurons.
 Presynaptic cell- messaged that are
carried by neurotransmitters released
by terminal buttons.
 Postsynaptic cell-fluid filled gap
between the terminal buttons and the
membrane of the neurons: a form of
synapse.
 Postsynaptic potential- produced by
neurotransmitter.
 Binding site- particular region of a
receptor molecule.
 Ligand- chemical that is attached to
binding site.
 Many synapses occur on the smooth
surface of a dendrite or dendritic
spine.
 Presynaptic membrane- located at the
end of terminal buttons.
 Postsynaptic membrane- located on
the neuron that receives the message.
 Post and Pre synaptic membranes are
facing each other across the synaptic
cleft.
 Synaptic cleft- gap that varies in size
from synapse to synapse; contains
extracellular fluid which the
neurotransmitter diffuses.
 Synaptic Vesicles- small round
objects in the shape of spheres or
ovoids.
 Transport protein- fills vesicles with
the neurotransmitter.
  Trafficking protein-involved in the
release of neurotransmitters and
recycling of vesicles.
 Release zone-region from which the
neurotransmitter is released.
Release of Neurotransmitter
 Docking- accomplished when clusters
of protein molecules attach to other
protein molecules located in the
presynaptic membrane
 Fusion pore- Hole through both
membranes that enables them to fuse
together.
3 distinct pools of the synaptic vesicles
a.) Release ready vesicles- docked against the
inside of the presynaptic membrane.
b.) Recycling pool- 10-15% of the total of
vesicle pool.
c.) Reserve pool- 85-90% of the total of
vesicle pool.
 Bulk endocytosis- process of entering
the cell by breaking off the large
pieces of the membrane of the
terminal button inward.
Activation of Receptors (LO 2.12)
 Postsynaptic Receptors- binding site
of special protein molecules located in
the postsynaptic membrane.
 Ionotropic Receptors- produce
electrical current in torpedo.
 Metabotropic Receptors- Does not
open Ion channels directly but instead
start a chain of chemical events.
 Second Messenger- Enzymes that
stimulates the production of a
chemical.
Postsynaptic potentials (LO 2.13)
 Excitatory postsynaptic potential
(EPSP)- when sodium channels are
opened- results in depolarization.
 Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
(IPSP)- if potassium channels open,
some of this cation will follow
gradient ang will leave the cell.
Termination of Post synaptic potentials (LO
2. 14)
 Reuptake- postsynaptic potential
produced by most neurotransmitter is
terminated. Extremely rapid removal
of neurotransmitter from the synaptic
cleft by the terminal button.
 Enzymatic Deactivation-
accomplishes by an enzyme that
destroys molecules of the
neurotransmitter. Postsynaptic
potentials are terminated in this way
for acetylcholine. Postsynaptic
potentials produced by Ach are short-
lived because the postsynaptic
membrane at these synapses contains
enzyme called acetylcholinesterase.
Effect of Postsynaptic Potentials: Neural
Integration (LO 2.15)
 Neural Integration- effects of
excitatory and inhibitory synapses on
a particular neuron.
 Neural Inhibition- does not always
produce behavioral inhibition.
 Excitation of neurons that inhibit a
behavior suppresses that behavior.
Autoreceptors (LO 2.16)
 Respond to the neurotransmitter that
they themselves release. Located on
the membrane of any part of the cell.
Other types of synapses (LO 2.17)
  Presynaptic inhibition- Effect if the
activity of the axoaxonic synapse
decreases the release of
neurotransmitter.

 Presynaptic facilitation- Effect if the

activity of the axoaxonic synapse
increases the release of
neurotransmitter.
 Gap Junction-membranes meet and
almost touch.

Other form of chemical communication

(LO 2.18)

 Neuromodulators- chemicals
released by neurons that travel farther
and are dispersed more widely than
are neurotransmitter.

 Peptides- chain of amino acids.

 Hormones- secreted by cells of
endocrine glands.

 Target cells- cells that contain

receptors for a particular hormone.

 Steroid- hormones consist of very

small fat-soluble molecules.

Nervous System Diseases

 Myasthenia Gravis – breakdown of

proteins in Immune System

 Multiple Sclerosis- attacks the myelin

protein produced by oligodendrocytes.

 Area Postrema (not a disease)- Part of

the brain that controls vomiting.