Nervous System

The system that controls & coordinates all the activities of various body parts in
response to external & internal stimuli by the conduction of nerve impulses is called
nervous system.

Nervous System 1
 I. Terms
1. Stimulus: Any agent or change in the external or internal environment that
induces reaction in the body OR Anything that causes a reaction in the body.

2. Response: A change in activity in the body due to stimulus.

II. Functions of Nervous System

1. Control: It controls all the functions of various body parts

2. Co-ordination: It co-ordinates & integrates the activities of all body parts &
systems.

3. Involuntary activities: It regulates involuntary activities such as beating of heart &

breathing.

4. Reflexes: All spontaneous, automatic, involuntary activities are controlled by this

system.

5. Enables us to remember, to think and to reason out.

6. Keeps us informed about the outside world ( through sense organs ) as well as
the inside world.

III. Neuron (Or Nerve Cell) - The unit of

Nervous System
The nervous system is made up of highly specialized cells called neurons or nerve
cells.
Properties of neurons:

1. Irritability ( Property of responding to a change )

2. Conductibility

Nervous System 2
 A. Structure of Neuron
(a) Cyton (Or Perikaryon)
[ peri: surrounding, karyon: nucleus ]

The main part of neuron is cell body or

cyton or perikaryon

1. Neuroplasm: The cytoplasm of the

cell body.

2. Neurofibrils: Help in transmission of

impulses

3. Nissl’s granules

(b) Dendrites
[ dendron: tree/branch ]
These are small, branched projections
arising from the cyton. They conduct
nerve impulses from synapses to cyton.

(c) Axon (Or Nerve Fibre)

The long threadlike part of a nerve cell along which impulses are conducted.

1. Sheaths ( Coverings )

a. Myelinated Nerve Fibre (Nerve Fibre (Axon) which has 2 coverings)

i. Myelin sheath ( Inner sheath )

ii. Neurilemma ( Outer sheath )

iii. Nodes of Ranvier ( Gaps in myelin sheath )

b. Non-myelinated Nerve Fibre (Nerve Fibre(Axon) which has only 1 covering)

i. Neurilemma ( Outer sheath )

Functions of myelin sheath

Nervous System 3
 1. To increase speed of nerve impulse conduction

2. To insulate the axon (acts as insulator) i.e., prevents mixing of impulses

in adjacent axons

2. Collaterals: Branches of axon

3. Synaptic knob: Bulb like structure at the end of axon

4. Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter inside synaptic knob

5. Synapse: The point of contact between axon terminal (end) of a neuron with the
dendrites of another neuron by a fine gap

6. Synaptic cleft: The gap present between the dendrites and axon terminal

B. Classification of neurons
According the their functions, neurons are categorized into 3 types:

1. Sensory ( Afferent ) neurons - These neurons carry sensory impulses from the
sense organs to CNS ( Central Nervous System )

2. Motor ( Efferent ) neurons - These neurons transmit impulses from the CNS to
the effectors, i.e., muscles & glands

3. Association ( Connector ) neurons - These neurons are present in the CNS &
connect sensory neurons to motor neurons

C. Nerves
Note:

Neurons - Unit of nervous system

Nerve Fibres - Axons of neurons

Nerves - Bundle of nerve fibres of separate neurons covered by a tubular sheath

( nerve sheath ). The nerve arises from the brain & spinal cord and branched out
to almost all parts of the body.

Nervous System 4
 Kinds of nerves:

1. Sensory nerve - Contains only sensory nerve fibres bringing impulses from
sense organs to CNS

Example - Optic (eye) nerve & Auditory (ear) nerve

2. Motor nerve - Contains only motor nerve fibres carrying impulses from CNS to
effectors

Example - nerve arising from brain & connected to muscles of eyeball to

rotate the eye

3. Mixed nerve - Contains both sensory & motor nerve fibres

Example - All spinal nerves

D. Transmission of nerve impulse

Transmission of nerve impulse through the nerve fibre can be compared with the
conduction of electric current through a copper wire. Though there are differences:

Nerve Impulse Electric current

Takes place as a result of change in electric Takes places due to

Takes place due
potential ( wave of depolarisation followed by flow of electrons inside
to :
repolarisation ) a conductor

May be up to 1,50,000
Speed : Maximum upto 0.1 km/s
km/s

IV. Nervous System

A. Central Nervous System
CNS includes tha brain & spinal cord contained within the vertebral column.

(a) Brain
Facts

Largest among all animals

Made up of 1,000 billion neurons

Position, Protection & Meninges

Nervous System 5
 In the cranial cavity or cranum or brain box of skull

Surrounded by 3 protective membranous covering called

meninges which continue backwards on the spinal cord

The 3 meninges are:

1. Duramater 2. Arachnoid 3. Piamater

Outermost Middle layer Innermost layer

layer
Thin Very thin
Thick
Delicate & Non- Tough & highly
Tough & vascular vascular ( contains
Non- blood vessels )
vascular

Nervous System 6
 Between the meninges, spaces are
present. These are filled with
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Functions
of CSF:

1. It serves as shock absorber. It

protects the CNS against jerk &
jolts.

2. It maintains constant pressure

in and around the brain.

Inflammation of meninges is
called meningitis.

CSF ( Blue )

Structure of Brain

A. Forebrain

1. Olfactory lobes

2 poorly developed, club-shaped, widely separated bodies.

Concerned with the sense of smell.

2. Diencephalon - lies between cerebrum & mid-brain.

a. Hypothalamus

Controls body temperature.

Nervous System 7
 Controls pituitary gland.

Controls blood pressure.

b. Thalamus

Receives & passes pain and pressure impulses to cerebrum.

3. Cerebrum [ Cerebrum: brain ]

Largest portion of the brain.

Functions:

Cerebrum is the seat of intelligence, consciousness & will

power.

It controls all voluntary actions.

It perceives the sensory impulses, such as, pain, touch, taste,

smell, hearing & sight.

Conscious & Subconscious minds are present in cerebrum.

Hemispheres:

Divided into two (right & left) halves called cerebral hemispheres.

Each hemisphere is hollow internally.

The walls of the cerebral hemispheres have two regions:

1. Cortex ( Outer portion )

Cortex contains gray cell bodies of neurons (hence called

gray matter).

Nervous System 8
 It is highly convoluted (folded) to form ridges/folds (called
gyri) & grooves (called sulci).

The folds & grooves increase the surface area to

accommodate more neurons ( hence greater intelligence ).

The cortex enables us to think, reason out, invent, plan &

memorize.

2. Medulla ( Inner portion )

Medulla contains white axons (nerve fibres) of the

neurons (hence called white matter).

The two hemispheres are separated from each other by a very deep
groove called cerebral fissure.

And they are held together by a sheet of nerve fibres called corpus
callosum (”hard body”). Function of corpus callosum is to transfer
information from one hemisphere to the other.

Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into four lobes called frontal lobe,
parietal lobe, occipital lobe and temporal lobe.

Nervous System 9
 B. Midbrain

A small tubular part.

Functions:

1. Connects forebrain with hindbrain & conveys impulses.

2. Controls the sight & auditory impulses.

C. Hindbrain

*Brain stem = Midbrain + Pons + Medulla Oblongata

Posterior, small part of the brain

1. Pons

Located in the centre of the brain below cerebellum.

Nervous System 10
 Functions:

1. Carries impulses from medulla oblongata to forebrain.

2. Carries impulses from one hemisphere of cerebellum to the other.

3. Coordinates muscular movements on both the sides of the body.

2. Cerebellum [”little brain”]

Present below cerebrum, above medulla oblongata, behind pons.

Hemispheres:

Divided into two (right & left) halves called cerebellar hemispheres.

Its surface is marked by fissures.

The walls of the cerebral hemispheres have two regions:

1. Cortex (Outer region) - gray matter

2. Medulla (Inner/Central region) - white matter

Functions:

1. Maintains balance & equilibrium of the body.

2. Controls & coordinates muscular activity (Note: Impulse for performing

muscular act originates in the cerebrum not cerebellum)

Fact:
An alcoholic person when drunk is not able to stand and walk erect because:
Alcohol affects cere
bellum & it is unable to control and coordinate muscular activities properly.

3. Medulla Oblongata

Lowest portion of brain.

Extends from pons to spinal cord.

Located at the base of the skull.

Almost triangular in shape.

Hollow from inside.

Functions:

1. Controls involuntary activities of internal organs like heartbeat,

breathing, sneezing, swallowing, coughing, vomiting, hiccupping..

Nervous System 11
 Facts:

Hanging by rope causes injury to the medulla oblongata. As a result, the

involuntary actions, such as breathing and heartbeat are stopped.

Narcotics are drugs which depresses the CNS & thus relieves pain. They
induce sleep. In excess dosses produce unconsciousness, coma & may
lead to death.

(b) Spinal Cord

A. Similarities between brain & spinal cord:

1. Spinal cord is also covered by 3 membranes called

meninges ( Duramater, Arachnoid, Piamater ).

2. Spaces between these meninges is full of CSF.

3. Spinal cord is also made up of gray matter & white

matter. BUT:

Arrangement of these are reverse, i.e:

1. Outside = White matter ( Axons of neurons )

2. Inside = Gray matter ( Cells bodies of neurons )

B. Spinal Cord:

1. Long, unsegmented (undivided), cord (thread) like

structure.

2. Extending from medulla oblongata of brain, through the

neural canal of vertebral column to the lumbar (lower part
of back) region.

3. Length: 45 cm.

4. Spinal cord is hollow from inside containing a cavity

called central canal.

C. Functions:

1. Conducts sensory impulses from skin & muscles to brain.

2. Conducts motor responses from brain to muscles &

limbs.

3. Controls reflexes below neck.

Nervous System 12
 4. Controls all spinal reflexes.

D. Structure:

1. A spinal nerve originates from the spinal cord by means of two roots:

a. Dorsal root ( Each has an ovoid dorsal ganglion )

b. Ventral root

2. Spinal nerve (sensory + motor) separates at junction of the roots.

a. Sensory nerve continues in Dorsal root

b. Motor nerve continues in Ventral root

3. Both the roots enter the gray matter and end in corresponding horns

a. Dorsal root ends in Dorsal horn

b. Ventral root ends in Ventral horn

Nervous System 13
 B. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
PNS includes the nerves which carry impulses to & from CNS.
Divided into two:

(a) Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

It consists of cranial & spinal nerves.

1. Cranial Nerves - BRAIN [ 12 PAIRS ]

Those nerves which arise from the

brain are called cranial nerves

12 pairs

Types of cranial nerves:

1. Sensory - for example:

olfactory(nose), optic(eye) &
Cranial Nerves
auditory(ear) nerves.

Nervous System 14
 2. Motor - for example: occulomotor
nerve (going to eye muscles)

3. Mixed - for example: facial

nerves

2. Spinal Nerves - SPINAL CORD [

31 PAIRS ]

Those nerves which arise from

the spinal cord are called
spinal nerves

31 pairs

Classification of spinal nerves:

1. Neck region (Cervical): 8

pairs

2. Thorax (Thoracic): 12 pairs

3. In abdomen (Lumbar): 5
pairs

4. In hip region (Sacral): 5

pairs

5. In tail region (Coccygeal): 1

pair

Remember: Every spinal

nerve is a mixed nerve having
both sensory & motor
neurons.

(b) Autonomous Nervous System (ANS)

ANS controls all involuntary activities of various body parts.
It is divided into two:

1. Sympathetic Nervous System

Prepares the body for violent action during EMERGENCY. It is stimulated

by hormone adrenaline.

Nervous System 15
 2. Parasympathetic Nervous System

Prepares the body for re-gaining normal conditions after the violent act is
over.

Autonomic nervous system is strongly influenced by emotions such as grief,

happiness, fear, anger…

Nervous System 16
 V. Actions performed by our body
There are two types of actions performed by our body:

1. Voluntary actions - controlled by our will

2. Involuntary actions - not under control of our will

Nervous System 17
 A. Reflex Action ( Reflexes )
Reflex action is a spontaneous, involuntary and automatic response to
any stimulus without the involvement of the brain.

There are two types of reflexes:

1. Unconditional Reflexes - Natural or Inborn or Simple Reflexes

2. Conditional Reflexes - Acquired or Learned Reflexes

1. Unconditional Reflexes
No previous experience or learning is required.

Reflexes are inborn, i.e. inherited from the parents.

Mechanism of Unconditional Reflexes

1. Stimulus perceived by receptor - sensory impulse generated - carried to CNS

through sensory nerve fibres.

2. In CNS sensory impulse is converted into a motor impulse - it is carried to

effector through motor nerve fibres.

Reflex Arc

Nervous System 18
 Path covered by the impulses from receptor to the effector through sensory nerve
fibres, a part of CNS and motor nerve fibres, is known as reflex arc.

Examples of unconditional reflex action

Salivation on thinking of or smelling favourite food.

Withdrawal of hand on touching fire/hot object.

Sneezing, Coughing, Vomiting, Swallowing, Blushing.

Closing of eyelids on seeing a very bright light.

2. Conditional Reflexes

Nervous System 19
 Develops during lifetime
due to experience or
learning.

Pavlov’s experiment to
demonstrate a
conditioned reflex :
———

Nervous System 20