NEUROANATOMY

Nervous System Introduction

Lecture by: M.K. Sastry
Head Of the Department (UNIT 2)
Department of Integrative Functional & Resortive
Medicine, Nobel Institute Of Neurosciences, Nobel
Medical College Teaching Hospital, Nepal
 Medical Significance
 The brain and nervous system control all
other functions of the body.
 The extreme importance of the nervous
system in medicine is based on the
serious nature of the many disorders
affecting its structures (more than 1000
disorders).
 Medical Significance
 Causes more hospitalization than any
other diseases, including heart diseases
and cancers.
 Neurological diseases affect 50 million
Americans and costs us about $400
billions annually
 Introduction
 In this country alone, the numbers are
overwhelming:

1. Cerebrovascular Disease - is the 3rd

ranking cause of death - vascular
conditions of brain & spinal cord
annually kill ~500,000
 Introduction
 In this country alone, the numbers are
overwhelming:

2. Epileptics seizures ~ 1,500,000

3. Movement disorders affect another one
million people
 Introduction
 In this country alone, the numbers are
overwhelming:
4. There are ~ 2 million totally blind
individuals; & over 13 million with
visual impairments

5. There are ~ 17 million totally or partially

deaf persons
 Introduction

6. Over 3 million people are afflicted with

Alzheimer’s disease

7. At least 700,000 have cerebral palsy

8. More than 250,000 have multiple sclerosis
 Introduction

9. In addition, there are over 500,000

accidental head and spine injuries
annually; fortunately only a minority of
which actually injure the brain or spinal
cord
 Introduction

10. Acute head injury is the leading cause of

death or disability between ages 2 & 40
(as of 1995)
 Cellular Components of the
Nervous System
 Neurons - the primary functional cells in the
nervous system (- approx. 100 Billion in CNS)
1. Responsible for initiating & conducting
electrical signals by which nervous
system communicates
 Cellular Components of the
Nervous System
 Neurons - the primary functional cells in the
nervous system (- approx. 100 billion in CNS)
2. Size & shape varies greatly between
regions of the nervous system & with
respective functions
 Cellular Components of the
Nervous System
 Neurons - the primary functional cells in the
nervous system (- approx. 100 billion in CNS)
3. Mature neurons do NOT divide or
replicate, do NOT regenerate following
injury
 Anatomic features
(common to all neurons)

1. Soma - cell body

 Metabolic center of cell
 Typical cellular organelles: large clear
nucleus, nucleolus, mitochondria, ER,
golgi apparatus, lysosomes
 Anatomic features
(common to all neurons)

2. Endoplasmic reticulum - a characteristic

feature of neurons: - high concentration of
RER (granules, form nissl substance, stain
basic)
 Neurons
3. Cytoplasmic fibrils - another distinguishing
feature of neurons, make up cytoskeleton

a. Neurofilaments: intermediate
cytoskeletal filaments - abundant, found
throughout soma & along processes (10
nm in diameter) – a principle support
system component
 Neurons
3. Cytoplasmic fibrils - another distinguishing feature
of neurons, make up cytoskeleton

b. Neuro-tubules (Microtubules): especially

abundant in dendrites - found in cytoplasmic,
axonal transport, movement of organelles
throughout cell - (20-30 nm in diameter) =
microtubules, oriented lengthwise
 Neurons
3. Cytoplasmic fibrils - another distinguishing feature
of neurons, make up cytoskeleton

c. Microfilaments: thinnest, associated with

external membrane & dendritic spines - anchor
membrane constituents, hold Receptors in
place - (5 nm in diameter) = microfilaments in
other cells Processes of neurons
 Dendrites
 Dendrites - number, length, degree of
ramification varies between neuronal types
a. Usually many per neuron, typically
branch extensively
b. Carry incoming signals toward soma
 Dendrites
 Dendrites - number, length, degree of
ramification varies between neuronal types
c. Neuron signal receptors (the dendritic
field of a cell = its receptive field)
 Axon
 Axon - one per neuron

a. Conducting process - carries info

away from soma, toward other
neurons or effectors
b. Length varies greatly, can be very
long - sciatic axons > 1 meter (spine -
> foot)
 Axon
 Axon - one per neuron

c. No ribosomes, no protein synthesis,

depend on axonal cytoplasmic
transport from soma
d. Collaterals = branches of axon,
degree of branching varies greatly
 Axon

 Axon hillock = initial segment (of axon)

a. Base of axon as it leaves soma - looks

pale (no nissl staining)

b. Specialized segment of membrane

for action potential initiation due to
lower threshold than rest of cell
 Axon

 Axon hillock = initial segment (of axon)

a. Also has an extremely high

concentration of voltage-gated ion
channels
b. Allows action potential conduction to
travel in ONE direction
 Terms

1. Nucleus - a group of neuronal cell bodies

within the central nervous system, eg
lateral geniculate nucleus

2. Ganglion (ganglia, pl) - group of cell bodies

in peripheral nervous system
 Terms

3. Nerve - collection of axons in the PNS

(tract, fasciculus = a bundle of nerve
fibers)

4. White matter - axons, myelinated

5. Gray matter - concentrations of cell bodies
and unmyelinated dendrites
 Classification of neurons
A. Based on processes:
1. Unipolar neurons a.

a. Single primary process extends from

soma, which can branch into dendrites
& axon
b. The principle neuronal cell type of
invertebrates
 Classification of neurons
A. Based on processes:
1. Unipolar neurons a.

c. Pseudounipolar neurons, e.G. Dorsal

root ganglion cells, appear unipolar, in
embryo are actually bipolar; axon &
dendrite extensions fuse
 Classification of neurons
A. Based on processes:
2. Bipolar neurons - e.G. Bipolar cells in
retina
 Axon & dendrite both extend from
soma, from opposite ends
 Classification of neurons
A. Based on processes:
3. Multipolar neurons

a. Multiple dendritic branches from all

parts of soma, & one axon
b. Many variations due to length, number
of dendrites, length of axon
 Classification of neurons
A. Based on processes:
3. Multipolar neurons

c. e.g. Pyramidal neuron, spinal motor

neuron, purkinje neuron
 Classification of neurons

B. Based on functions
 Sensory neurons: carry sensory
information from
 Motor neurons: carry motor information
to muscle sand glands
 Classification of neurons

B. Based on functions
 Interneurons: in between sensory and
motor
 Projection neuron / relay neuron: has
long fibers and project information from
on region to another
 Classification of neurons
C. Based on orientation
1. Afferent - refers to the neuron or
process extending toward the cell in
question
2. Efferent - refers to the neuron or
process extending away from the cell
in question
 Neuroglial (Glia)

 Supporting cells - do not conduct action

potential, body has 10-15 times more
glia cells than neurons (about one
trillion)
 Derived from neuroectodermal and
mesodermal origin
 Neuroectodermal origin: #1-4

1. Schwann cells
 Form myelin sheath which insulates an
axon in peripheral nerves
 Cell winds around axon, inside its own
layers, piling up layers of lipid/protein
cell membranes
 Neuroectodermal origin: #1-4

1. Schwann cells
 One Schwann cell associates with and
myelinates a segment of only one axon
 Schwann cell, myelin, axon are all
surrounded by a basement membrane
(covers whole unit)
 Neuroectodermal origin: #1-4

1. Schwann cells
 Help to buffer excess extracellular K+
(prevent rampant depolarization)
 Myelin sheath insulation greatly speeds
conduction
2. Oligodendroglia
 Same function as Schwann cells, but for
axons of neurons in central nervous
system
 Have small, round, dense nuclei
 Unlike Schwann cells, can myelinate a
segment of several axons
2. Oligodendroglia
 No basement membrane surrounds the
axon like Schwann cells do in PNS
 These features affect ability of CNS cells
to regenerate following injury (vs. Pns)
3. Astrocytes
 Named from ‘star’ appearance of
processes radiating out from soma
 Oval nuclei (larger & much less dense
than oligodendroglia)
 Function of Astrocytes
i. Nutritive: form significant portion of brain
blood barrier (BBB), surrounding CNS
vasculature
 Thought to be important communicators
between neurons and capillaries
 Transport nutrients, ions, molecules from
capillary to neurons
 Function of Astrocytes
ii. Healing: act as scavengers, remove
neuronal debris, seal off area for healing

iii. Buffers excess extracellular K+ ,

preventing excess depolarization
 Function of Astrocytes
iv. Remove chemical neurotransmitters from
synaptic clefts - high affinity for specific
neurotransmitters

v. Support: provide structure, stability, act

similarly to connective tissues
 Function of Astrocytes
vi. In development: act as guides for
outgrowth & migration in the developing
NS
 Types of astrocytes
 Distinguished by localization, not on any
functional difference

i. Fibrous astrocytes - name for those

in, around white matter (areas rich
in axons)
 Types of astrocytes
 Distinguished by localization, not on any
functional difference

ii. Protoplasmic astrocytes - those in

gray matter, near synapses,
dendrites
Ependymal cells
 layer of ciliated columnar epithelial cells
with tight junctions which line cavities of
the neural tube (cerebral ventricles,
spinal cord central canal)
a. this layer forms a selective barrier
between nervous tissue &
ventricular fluid
Ependymal cells
 layer of ciliated columnar epithelial cells with
tight junctions which line cavities of the neural
tube (cerebral ventricles, spinal cord central
canal)

b. also forms choroid plexus - produces

cerebral spinal fluid by filtering its
components from blood
 Glial cells of mesodermal origin
Microglia
 Cells from mesoderm which migrate into
CNS
 Normally in small numbers, proliferate as
needed
 Glial cells of mesodermal origin
 Microglia
 Become macrophages in response to
injury or damage,
 Act as scavengers, have a phagocytic role
in removing debris, damaged cells
 Synapse

A. Chemical synapse
 Presynaptic membrane, postsynaptic
membrane, and synaptic cleft
 Can also be classified as: axodendritic,
axosomatic, axoaxonal, and dendrodendritic
 Synapse

A. Chemical synapse
 Neurotransmitter (adrenaline,
acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin,
glutamic acid…)
 Neuro-modulators (excitable or inhibitive
neurotransmitters)
 Synapse

B. Electrical synapse
 Neuron close together, rare in mammalian
nervous system
 Meninges

 There is very little connective tissue in brain

tissue, except in linings of vasculature

A. CNS = meninges: Connective tissue

membranes surrounding the NS
1. Pia mater - immediately next to the
nervous tissue, thin & delicate
 Meninges

A. CNS = meninges: Connective tissue

membranes surrounding the NS

2. Arachnoid - middle layer

3. Dura mater - outermost meninges,
thicker & very tough
 PNS:

1. Endoneurium: thin collagenous layer,

immediately surrounds a myelinated nerve
fiber

2. Perineurium: connective tissue covering

surrounding a fascicle of nerve fibers
 PNS:

3. Epineurium: thick connective tissue layer

surrounding many fascicles which make up
a nerve trunk
* the 3 CNS meningial layers are continuous with
the connective tissue layers around PNS nerves
covering around all the
fascicles is the
epineurium

covering around fascicle fascicle

is the perineurium
 Axonal Transport

 Fast Axonal Transport - involves

microtubules as a track -some organelles
move along in stepwise fashion -
especially synaptic vesicles, precursors,
etc - requires oxidative metabolism,
energy utilization
1. Anterograde: = orthograde, from cell body
to terminal
a. Mechanism by which synaptic vesicles
move from soma to terminal along
microtubules
b. Speed = 410 mm/day
2. Retrograde: from terminal to soma
a. Mechanism for returning worn out
materials to cell body for degradation
or recycling
b. Returns to cell body information from,
about the axon - communicates with
neighbors
2. Retrograde: from terminal to soma
c. Nerve growth factor (NGF) travels from
source to soma, stimulates neuronal
growth
d. Toxin transport, e.G. Neurotropic
viruses get to CNS: herpes simplex,
rabies, polio
2. Retrograde: from terminal to soma
e. Speed = approx. 1/2 - 2/3 that of
anterograde transport
 Axonal Transport
 Slow Axoplasmic Flow

1. Predominant means of organelle

movement within the neuron
2. Movement is through cytoplasm of
axon, not along microtubules
3. Speed = approx. 10 mm/day
 Main regions of the central
nervous system
 Cerebrum

 Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal and

insula
 Interpretation
 Initiating voluntary movements

 Storing memory
 Main regions of the central
nervous system
 Cerebrum

 Retrieving memory
 Reasoning
 Center for intelligence and personality
 Main regions of the central
nervous system
 Cerebellum

 Large in human, receiving information

from sensory systems and the cerebral
cortex, main function to maintain
balance, posture, mostly not initiated
from the cerebral cortex.
 Brain stem

 Medullla, pons and midbrain are generally

referred as brain stem
 Medulla Oblongata

 Continuation from spinal cord into the

brain, part of the brain stem.
 Brain stem

 Pons
 Dorsal part consists of sensory and motor
tracts
 Ventral part contains connection
between two hemispheres, contribute to
motor efficiency
 Brain stem

 Midbrain
 Involved with visual and auditory system,
red nucleus and substantia nigra are also
located here (more later)
 Diencephalon:
 Forms the central core of the cerebrum,
including thalamus, hypothalamus,
epithalamus, and subthalamus, controls
automatic nervous system, endocrine
function via hormones and nervous
impulses.
 Telencephalon
 Includes cerebral cortex, corpus striatum,
and medullary center. Areas of cerebral
cortex (paleocortex) receive primitive
function from olfactory system, which is
common to lower vertebrates. Other
areas are called archicortex,
 Telencephalon

includes limbic system (emotions, and

some memories, early vertebrates). Most
areas of the cerebral cortex (90%) in
human are referred as neocortex, which
controls all sensations (except smell),
involves emotions, memories and
intellectual activities.
Thank You