PHYSIOLOGY

1. ORGANIZATION OF
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Prof. Dr. Nadia Yassin

A. HISTOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM (NS)
The NS is formed of a big no. of cells, which are of 2 types:
1. Nerve cells = Neurons
2. Supporting cells = Glial cells
1. THE NEURON
 It is the basic structural unit of the NS.
 It generates electrical impulses, which are transmitted
from one part of the body to another.
 In most neurons, electrical impulses release chemical
messengers, called neurotransmitters, to communicate
with each other.
 Neurons are integrators: their output = the sum of the
inputs they receive from thousands of other neurons
that end on them. 2
A. HISTOL. ORGANIZATION OF NS (cont.)
STRUCTURE OF NEURON
 Neurons occur in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, but they share
common features. They usually possess 4 parts:
1. Cell Body = Soma:
It contains:
- a nucleus
- ribosomes (protein synthesis)
- mitochondria & other organelles
(provide E & sustain metabolic
activity of cells)
2. Dendrites:
 Usually 5-7 processes (may be
many more)
 Usually highly branched (up to
400,000)   surface area.
 Together with the cell body,
dendrites receive most input.
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 Transmit electrical current toward the cell body only.
 A. HISTOL. ORGANIZATION OF NS (cont.)
STRUCTURE OF NEURON (cont.)
3. Axon = Nerve Fiber:
 Usually single & long (few μm to  1m).
 Transmits impulses away from soma toward target cell.
 Axon hillock or initial segment (= beginning of axon + part of soma
where axon joins it) is the trigger zone where electric signals are
generated in most neurons. Signals are then propagated along axon.
 At its end the axon undergoes branching. The greater the no. of
branches, the greater the sphere of influence of a neuron.

4. Axon Terminal = Terminal Button:

 Each branch of the axon ends in an axon terminal.
 It is responsible for the release of neurotransmitters (NT) from axon.
NT diffuse out of the axon terminal to next neuron or to a target cell.
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 A. HISTOL. ORGANIZATION OF NS (cont.)
MYELIN SHEATH
 Axons of most (but not all) neurons are coated by a protective layer
= myelin sheath  “myelinated neurons”.
 Myelin sheath is formed by the following cells:
1. In peripheral NS (PNS): by Schwann cells
2. In central NS (CNS): by oligodendrocytes.

1. In PNS: Schwann Cells

 They are glia-like cells.
 During embryonic development, these cells attach to growing axons
& wrap around them  concentric layers of plasma membrane.
 Nucleus is located in outermost layer.
 Myelin sheath of an axon is formed of many Schwann cells that align
themselves along the length of the axon.
 Each segment is separated from the next by a small unmyelinated
segment called node of Ranvier.
 Plasma membrane of Schwann cells is  80% lipid  myelin sheath
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is mostly lipid  appears glistening white to the naked eye.
A. HISTOL. ORGANIZATION OF NS (cont.)
MYELIN SHEATH (cont.)
1. In PNS: Schwann Cells (cont.)
Function of myelin sheath:
1. It helps to insulate axons & prevents cross-stimulation of adjacent
axons.
2. It allows nerve impulses to travel with great speed down the axons,
“jumping” from one node of Ranvier to the next.

Some nerve fibers are “unmyelinated”. Their axons are also covered
by Schwann cells, but there are no multiple wrappings of the
membrane. Such axons conduct impulses at a much lower rate.

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MYELIN SHEATH

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 A. HISTOL. ORGANIZATION OF NS (cont.)
MYELIN SHEATH (cont.)
2. In CNS: Oligodendroglia = Olidodendrocytes
 They are a type of glial cells.
 They cover axons in the central nervous system (CNS).
 Unlike Schwann cells, they may branch to form myelin on up to 40
axons.

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 A. HISTOL. ORGANIZATION OF NS (cont.)
2. GLIAL CELLS = SUPPORTING CELLS
 Act as supporting cells (glia = glue): They surround neurons &
support them physically & metabolically.
 They constitute 90% of cells in CNS.
 There are 3 types:

A. Astrocytes = Astroglia:
Have small cell bodies & extensively branching processes.
Functions:
1. Help regulate composition of extracellular fluid (ECF) in CNS.
2. Some of their processes form “end-feet”, which are close to
cerebral blood capillaries . They form a barrier around capillaries
(blood-brain barrier)  prevents toxins & other substances from
entering the brain.

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A. HISTOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF NS (cont.)
2. GLIAL CELLS – Supporting Cells (cont.)
B. Microglia:
 Scavenger cells (= phagocytic cells) of CNS.
 Activated by injury or inflammation: Upon activation, they
migrate to the affected area to become macrophages & clean
cellular debris.

C. Oligodendrocytes = Oligodendroglia:
 Myelin-forming cells in the CNS (see before).

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Glial Cells

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GLIAL CELLS

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B. ANATOMICAL ORGANIZATION OF NS

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 B. ANATOMICAL ORGANIZATION OF NS (cont.)
Central Nervous System (CNS):
 Brain & spinal cord
 Housed in bony structures: skull & vertebral column

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

 Transmits signals to & from CNS.
 Consists of nerves (= bundles of nerve fibers) that extend between
CNS and peripheral tissues.
 The PNS consists of:
 12 pairs of cranial nerves:
They originate in the brain & pass through openings in skull.
 31 pairs of spinal nerves:
They originate in the spinal cord & pass through openings in the
vertebral column.
 Individual fibers in PNS may be processes of:
 Sensory neurons or
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 Motor neurons
 B. ANATOMICAL ORGANIZATION OF NS (cont.)
 Sensory Division (Afferent Division):
 Transmits nerve impulses from the periphery to the CNS.
 Transmits information about:
 the external environment (e.g., light, sound, touch, temperature or
pressure) or
 the internal state of the body (e.g., distension of viscera).

 Motor Division (Efferent Division):

 Transmits impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles or glands) that
perform the order.
 Voluntary (Somatic) NS:
- It consists of motor neurons that supply skeletal muscles.
- It therefore controls voluntary functions of body.
 Autonomic NS:
- It innervates smooth muscles, cardiac muscle and glands.
- It therefore controls involuntary functions of the body, e.g., heart
rate, breathing, digestion (i.e., involuntary smooth muscles).
- Autonomic nerves are further subdivided into sympathetic &
parasympathetic divisions, which counterbalance each other. 15
C. FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF NS
Functionally, neurons are divided into 3 main types:
I. Afferent neurons (sensory neurons):
 Transmit information from sensory receptors at the periphery to
the CNS.
N.B.: Receptors are specialized structures that respond to various
physical & chemical changes in their environment, causing electrical
signals to be generated in neurons.
 Have an unusual shape.
 No dendrites
 Have a single process (considered to be an axon), which divides
shortly after leaving the cell body:
 one branch, the peripheral process, ends at the receptors

 the other branch, the central process, enters the CNS to form
junctions with other neurons.
 Are called bipolar cells due to their shape.

 The cell body & long peripheral process of the axon are in PNS, &
only the short central process of the axon enters CNS. 16
C. FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION (cont.)
II. Efferent neurons (motor neurons):
 Transmit information from CNS to effectors (e.g., ms., glands,
viscera).
 Dendrites, cell body & a small part of axon lie within the CNS, while
most of the axon lies in the PNS.

III. Interneurons:
 Account for 99% of all neurons.
 Lie completely within the CNS.
 Transmit impulses between sensory & motor neurons, acting as
neuronal bridges.
 The no. of interneurons between certain afferent & efferent
neurons varies according to the complexity of the action.

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C. FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF NS

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 Synapses
Definition:
It is the junction between 2
neurons, where one neuron alters
the electric or metabolic activity of
another.
Types of neurons in a
synapse:
1. Presynaptic neuron
2. Postsynaptic neuron

At most synapses, the signal is

transmitted from one neuron to
another by neurotransmitters,
which bind to specific protein
receptors on the membrane of the
receiving neuron, altering its
activity. 19
 Synapses (cont.)
Types of synapses:

1. Axodendritic
synapse

2. Axosomatic
synapse

3. Axoaxonic
synapse

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