Human Motor Control and Learning

Lecture 3:
The Neuromotor Basis for
Motor Control

Dr. Nicholas T. Antony

Email: Nicholas.Antony@uoit.ca
 Lecture Outline

1. The neuromotor basis of movement

2. The neuron

3. The peripheral nervous system

4. The central nervous system

 Part 1:
The Neuromotor Basis for
Motor Control
 Introduction

The neuromotor system

forms the foundation for the
control of movement
 The Neuromotor Basis for Motor Control

The human nervous system is divided 2 main sections:

A. Central Nervous System

o Spinal cord, brainstem, cerebellum and cerebral region

B. Peripheral Nervous System

o All nervous system structures not encased in the skull or vertebral column

Neuromotor system: is defined as the parts of the nervous system

that are involved in the control of voluntary, coordinated movement
Part 2:
The Neuron
 Structure of Neurons
The functional unit of the nervous system is the neuron:
 Neurons transmit information throughout the nervous system

 Typical neuron has four main components:

1. Soma: Synthesizes a large quantity and variety of proteins
used as neurotransmitters.
2. Dendrites: Are branchlike extensions that serve as the main
input sites for the cell.
3. Axon: Is the output unit of the cell, specialized to send
information to other neurons, muscle cells, or glands
4. Presynaptic terminals: Transfer elements of the neuron
Structure of Neurons
Synapses and Cell Communication

Presynaptic membranes
“deliver information” in the
form of neurotransmitters.

Postsynaptic membranes
“receive information”
because they have receptors
for neurotransmitters
 Transmission of Information by Neurons
Neurons function to provide: reception, integration, transmission and transfer
of information

Neurons function via rapid changes in the electrical potential across the cell
membrane
• The redistribution of ions creates a difference in electrical charge which is transmitted the length of
the axon (action potential)

AP reaches the presynaptic terminals and causes release of neurotransmitters

which cross the synaptic cleft and bind to the postsynaptic cell

Neurotransmitter binding causes excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials

which summate through temporal and spatial summation
• At threshold stimulus AP generated in postsynaptic cells
• Transmission regulated by neuromodulators

Neuron has integrated information from many synapses

Spatial and Temporal Summation
 Part 3:
The Peripheral
Nervous System
 Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System: all nervous system structures not
encased in the skull or vertebral column

Afferent axons carry information

toward the CNS

Efferent axons carry information

away from the CNS
 Sensory Neurons
Sensory Neurons → Afferent

 Transmit information from the periphery to the

CNS
• Receptors - Fine/crude touch, proprioception, pain
and vibration
• Located in muscles, skin and joints

 Typical sensory neuron: Pseudounipolar

• Appear to have a single projection from the cell body
o 2 axons and no true dendrites
• Cell body of sensory neurons located at the dorsal
root ganglion of the spinal nerve
Sensory Neurons
 Motor Neurons
Motor Neurons → Efferent
 Transmit information from the CNS to muscles
• Influence the control of movement by activating muscle contraction

2 Types:
1. Alpha Motor Neurons
• Located predominantly in spinal cord
• Axons synapse on skeletal muscle fibers to create the motor unit
• Activity influenced by upper motor neuron tracts

2. Gamma Motor Neurons

• Activity regulated through alpha-gamma coactivation
• Regulates sensitivity of intrafusal fibers (muscle spindles) to maintain
accurate level of proprioception
Gamma Motor Neurons
 Lower Motor Neurons

Lower motor neurons arranged

into ‘pools’ which supply
individual muscles
 Interneurons
 Specialized neurons that originate and terminate in the brain or spinal cord

 Function as relays transmitting information between:

• Axons from the brain and motor neurons
• Axons from the sensory nerves and the spinal nerves ascending to the brain

 Interneurons are integral in the transmission of signals to multiple areas,

reflexes and movement

Neuron Ratio →
1 Sensory neuron
10 Motor neuron
200000 Interneurons
Neurons
 Part 4:
The Central
Nervous System
 Central Nervous System

5 structures directly
involved in the control of
voluntary movement:

 Cerebrum
 Diencephalon (Thalmus)
 Cerebellum
 Brainstem
 Spinal Cord
Cerebrum
 Cerebrum
Anatomy

 Divided into 2 hemispheres (longitudinal fissure)

 Entire surface covered by gray matter (cerebral cortex)

• Varies in thickness between 2-5 mm
• Arranged into sulci (shallow grooves) and gyri (cortical folds)

 Deep white matter represents myelinated axons

arranged into tracts
Cerebrum
 Cerebrum
Each hemisphere is divided into 4 main lobes:
 Frontal lobe – vital to the initiation and control of movement
 Parietal lobe – controls perception of sensory information
 Temporal lobe – memory, abstract thought and judgment
 Occipital lobe – visual perception
 Movement
 Voluntary movement is controlled from the top
down

Brain → Spinal cord → Muscle

 Neural activity leading to muscle contraction

and movement begins with a decision made in
the anterior part of the frontal lobe

 Activates motor planning areas which determine

the specific upper motor neurons utilized

A. Primary Motor Cortex

B. Premotor Cortex
C. Supplementary Motor Cortex
 Primary Motor Cortex
 Located in the frontal lobe anterior to the central sulcus (precentral
gyrus)
 Contains upper motor neurons which activate alpha motor neurons
to skeletal muscles

Function
 Involved in the initiation and
coordination of voluntary
movements for fine motor skills
• Control of the hand and face
• Primary motor cortex organized into
the motor homunculus
Motor Homunculus
 Premotor Area
 Located anterior to the primary motor cortex

Function
 Organization of movements before they are
initiated
• Activation of large muscle groups (trunk and girdle)
• Utilized in anticipatory postural adjustments

 Rhythmic coordination during movement

• Enables transition between sequential movements
of serial motor skills (ex. keyboard typing, piano playing)

 Control of movement based on observation of another person performing a skill

• Relate sensory cues to desired motor plans
 Supplementary Motor Area
 Located on the medial surface of the frontal lobe adjacent to
primary motor cortex

Function
 Essential role in control of sequential
movements
 Involved in preparation and organization
of movement
 Role with other brain structures in
modifying the continuous, bilateral,
multi-joint movements
 Basal Ganglia
 Located in the insular cortex deep to the cerebral hemispheres

 Consists of 4 large nucleii

• Caudate nucleus
• Putamen
• Substantia Nigra
• Globus pallidus

Function
 The basal ganglia regulates motor control by inhibiting unwanted movements
 Role in predicting effects of actions and the execution of motor plans
• Movement initiation
• Regulates force of agonist muscles during movement
 Additional thalamic loops predict future events by processing spatial working
memory to select desired behaviours, prevent undesired behaviours and shift
attention
 Parkinson’s Disease
 Common disease associated with basal ganglia
dysfunction
• Pathology - death of dopamine producing cells in the substantia nigra

 Results in motor control

problems
• Bradykinesia (slow movement)
• Akinesia (reduced amount of movement)
• Rigidity of muscles
• Tremor

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aOSB6ytMk20
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a8tab8Wt55s
 Cerebellum
 Coordinates movement and postural control

 Cerebellum integrates large amount

of sensory information and adjusts
activity of UMNs
• Outer cerebellar layer covered by
gray matter

 Compares actual motor output with the intended movement

• Utilizes the internal feedback and high fidelity tracts

 Maintains equilibrium and balance

 Involved in learning the timing, rhythm and synchronization of movements

 Additional Areas
Brain Stem
 Located beneath the cerebrum and continuous with the spinal cord
 3 components:
1. Pons – connects the cerebellum to the cerebrum
2. Medulla – regulatory center for internal physiologic processes
• heart rate, breathing rate, body temperature
• decussation of motor tracts
3. Recticular formation – integrator of sensory and motor information
• Integrates sensory information to exert direct influence and modify activity of the CNS
through neuromodulation (sleep cycles, habituation, central pattern generators)

Thalamus
 Acts a relay station for information to and from cerebrum
 Receives and integrates sensory information from spinal cord and brainstem
and transfers information to appropriate region of cerebral cortex
Additional Areas
 Spinal Cord
 Spinal cord functions as more than a simple conduit to transmit signals between
the brain and peripheral nerves
• Divided into gray and white matter

 Gray matter contains interneurons,

unmyelinated axons and cell bodies
• Distinctive H-pattern arranged into
(dorsal and ventral horns)

 Dorsal roots contain sensory axons

transmitting information to the spinal cord

 Ventral roots contain axons of motor neurons

to muscle
Spinal Cord
 Sensory Neural Pathways
White matter represents myelinated axons arranged into sensory
and motor tracts

 Several ascending neural tracts

• Connect receptors to sensory areas of the cerebral cortex and cerebellum

 2 main sensory tracts

A. Dorsal column medial lemniscus tract: fine touch, proprioception and vibration
B. Anterolateral spinothalmic tract: crude touch, pain and temperature

 Tract to cerebellum important for motor control

A. Spinocerebellar tracts : primary pathways for proprioceptive information and
interneuron feedback to cerebellum
Spinal Cord Tracts
 Motor Neural Pathways
 Descending tracts containing upper motor neurons traveling from brain (CNS)
to spinal cord
• Activate lower motor neurons travelling through ventral roots to muscle
• Control circuits (cerebellum and basal ganglia ) regulate activity of upper motor neuron tracts

 Medial upper motor neuron tracts:

• Involved in controlling posture and gross movements , usually occurring automatically
without conscious effort
 Recticulospinal, medial corticospinal, medial/lateral vestibulospinal

 Lateral upper motor neuron tracts:

• Utilized in fine control and distal limb movements
• Ability to activate individual muscles independently of other muscles
 Lateral corticospinal, rubrospinal tract
 Motor Unit
Motor unit: consists of a lower motor neuron and the specific muscle fibers it
innervates

 Each muscle fiber generally receives input from only

one neuron, yet a single motor neuron may
innervate many muscle fibers
 All-or-none principle – AP will stimulate all muscle
fibers associated with an individual motor unit
 A single motor unit will innervate only one specific
muscle fiber type
 Number of muscle fibers innervated by motor unit
depends on type of movements associated with
the muscle
o Fine movements (ex. Eye muscles = 1 fiber/mu)
o Gross movements (ex. Pec major = 700 fibers/mu)
 Motor Unit Recruitment
 The individual and combined actions of motor units produce specific muscle
actions

 The force of muscle action varies from slight to maximal via two mechanisms:

1. Increased number (recruitment) of motor units

• A muscle generates considerable force when activated by all of its motor units

2. Increased frequency of motor unit discharge

• Repetitive stimuli reach a muscle before it relaxes to increase the total tension (temporal
summation)

 Henneman’s Size Principle: motor neurons are recruited in order of ascending size
• Allows the orderly recruitment of motor units to produce a smooth muscle action by allowing the
CNS to fine tune skeletal muscle activity to meet demands of the motor task
• Recruitment strategy minimizes the development of fatigue and permits equally fine control of
force at all levels of force output
 The Neural Control of Voluntary Movement

From Intent … to Action

 Performing a motor skill typically begins with a cognitively derived
intent that is based on the situation and goal

 Movement implementation of intent requires the interaction of

many CNS structures working both hierarchically and in parallel to
perform motor skill

 Carson and Kelso (2004): Emphasized the importance of considering

cognitive intent when evaluating the neuromotor processes in
movement
• Had participants perform finger flexion movement 1. on beat and 2. off beat
• Experiment demonstrated varied active brain regions in subjects performing exactly the
same movement but with different cognitive intentions
The Neural Control of Voluntary Movement
The Neural Control of Voluntary Movement

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iEd_fWilzF0

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7t84lGE5TXA

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JyJj32MsAUo