NOTRE DAME OF MIDSAYAP COLLEGE

College of Nursing

FINAL
REFLECTION
PAPER
MC 101 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Clinical Instructor: Johnryl L. Francisco, RN, MPA, MBA, CHA, FPCHA

PUNO, JYNEZZA MARIE DIOSANA

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING
LEVEL 1 – C
Instructions:
1. Write a 10-Page Reflection Paper (1.5 space, font style Bookman Old
Style, font size 12) about your personal journey of what you have
learned in Anatomy and Physiology.
2. Reflect on every topic, every system of the body, and every concept
being introduced in the subject.
3. Put your unforgettable learnings in paragraph form with a title for
every topic you reflected on.
4. Your Reflection Paper should contain core elements such as an
Introduction, the Main Body, and a Conclusion.
5. Be mindful of your spelling and grammar.
6. Submit your Reflection Paper on December 13, 2022.
 The Language of Anatomy

Anatomy and physiology education aids in understanding patients'

health state. It aids in the assessment, evaluation, diagnosis, and
tracking of a patient's health. In ternary, I learned about body systems,
organs, muscles, bones, tissue types, nerves, organ systems, immune
systems, cells, and how the body works in anatomy and physiology,
among other things. The term anatomy refers to the structure and
parts of the body. Along with the study of body structure, anatomy also
refers to how these body parts interact with one another and their
overall working relationship. Physiology is the study of how the body's
living systems function and work.

Most of us are naturally curious about our bodies. You can see this
fact amply demonstrated even in infants, who are fascinated with their
own waving hands or their mother’s nose. Unlike the infant, however,
an anatomy student like me must learn to identify the body structures
formally. When doctors refer to specific areas of the human body, they
do so relative to a standard position called anatomical position. In the
anatomical position the human body is erect, with head and toes
pointed forward and arms hanging at side with palms facing forward.
As I stand and assume the anatomical position, I notice that it is not
particularly comfortable because I must hold my hands unnaturally
forward instead of allowing them to hang partially cupped toward the
thighs.
Body surfaces provide a number of visible landmarks that can be used
to study the body. Several of these are describe in our discussion such
as anterior and posterior body landmarks, body orientation and
direction and body planes and section. The body is three-dimensional.
So, to observe its internal parts, it often helps to make use of a section
or cut made along an imaginary surface or line called a plane. There
three planes of space or sections that lie at right angles to one another.
These are the sagittal plane, frontal plane, and transverse plane.
We also discussed about the body cavities. The axial portion of the
body has two main cavities, these are dorsal body cavity and ventral
body cavity. The dorsal cavity consist of the cranial and spinal cavities
and the ventral body cavity is subdivided. The superior thoracic cavity
is separated from the rest of the ventral cavity by the muscular
diaphragm.
We also discussed about the locating abdominal surface regions, these
are the umbilical region it is the centermost region, which includes the
umbilicus. Epigastric region it is the immediately superior to the
umbilical region. Hypogastric region it is the immediately inferior to the
umbilical region. Iliac regions it is the lateral to the hypogastric region.
Lumbar regions it is between the ribs and flaring portions of the hip
bones and lastly the hypochondriac regions it is the flanking the
epigastric region laterally and overlying the lower ribs.

At first, I was having difficulty adjusting to my surroundings because I

was used to studying online, so I attempted to get used to it . To sum
up everything that have been stated so far, I have learnt a lot from Sir
Johnryl in just a month, but not everything. Sir Johnryl taught us a
remarkable lecture about anterior and posterior body landmarks or
medical terminology of the body since I utilized the phrases even at
home simply to memorize them. Learning this topic makes me think
that this is really important especially in medical field because doctors
don’t use some common terms to describe what is going to do. This
lesson presents some of the most important anatomical terms that will
be using to describe the body. As I become familiar with this
anatomical terminology, I maybe have a chance to examine the three
Dimensional relationships of body structures.

THE CELL

The cell, the structural and functional unit of all living things, is very
complex. Differences in size, shape, and internal makeup of the cells of
the human body reflect their specific roles in the body. Nonetheless,
cells do have many common features and functions. The building block
of all living things is the cell. Cells falls into four different groups
according to their structures and functions. Each of this corresponds
to one of the four tissue types these are the epithelial, muscular,
nervous, and connective.

All cells have three major regions or parts these are nucleus, plasma
membrane and cytoplasm. The nucleus is typically round or oval
structure near the center of the cell. It is surrounded by cytoplasm,
which in turn is enclosed by the plasma membrane. Within the
cytoplasm, even smaller cell structures organelles have been identified.
The nucleus is the control center of the cell and is necessary for cell
reproduction. The nucleus is the site of the genes or genetic material.
The plasma membrane it separates cell contents from the surrounding
environment. The cytoplasm and organelles are the cell contents
outside the nucleus and is the major site of most activities carried out
by the cell.

To sum up everything that have been stated so far, studying about cells
makes me think cells are amazing because of its structure and
functions that make all the living things. It is the smallest unit that is
typically considered alive and is a fundamental unit of life. The
unforgettable learnings about this topic are about the immortal life of
Henrietta Lacks. Sir Johnryl also gave us a reflection activity about the
hela cells which I used to reflect on my life and learn lessons for the
near future.
THE TISSUES

Cells are the building blocks of life. In humans and other multicellular
organisms, cells depend on one another and cooperate to maintain
homeostasis in the body. Group of cells that are similar in structure
and function are called tissues. The four primary tissue types are
epithelial, connective, nervous and muscular, they have distinct
structures, patterns and functions.

Epithelial tissues or epithelia, cover surfaces. Epithelial functions

include protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion and
sometimes sensory reception. It is the most abundant and widely
distributed of the tissue types. The connective tissue performs a variety
of functions but they primarily protect, support and bind together other
tissues of the body. Ligaments and tendons bind the bone together.
Muscle tissue is specialized to contract to produced movement of some
body parts. As I might expect, muscle cells are elongated to provide a
long axis for contraction. Nervous system is composed of two major cell
populations these are neuralgia and neurons. Neuralgia are special
supporting cells that protect, support, and insulate the more delicate
neurons. The neurons are highly specialized to receive stimuli.

To sum up, tissues is a group of cells that are similar in structure and
functions. It aggregates of same type of cells and it is common
embryonic origin. The unforgettable learning is about the regular
fibrous sites it is a type of dense connective tissue. So, it has tendons
and ligament which means tendons means soft or muscle to bone while
the ligament is hard or bone to bone. And also, the unforgettable
learnings that sir Johnryl teach us is about the loose connective tissue
it is also type of a dense connective tissue. So, it has a pneumonic
called ARA which means areolar, reticular and adipose.
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The skin is often considered an organ system the integumentary

system because of its extent and complexity. It does much more than
just cover the body exterior. It is tough yet pliable, a characteristic that
enables it to withstand constant insult from outside agents.

The skin has several functions, most concerned with protection. It

insulates and cushions the underlying body tissues and protects the
entire body from mechanical damage, chemical damage, thermal
damage and bacterial invasion. The skin has two distinct regions these
are the superficial epidermis composed of epithelium and an
underlying connective tissue the dermis. These layers are firmly
cemented together along a wavy border.
Structurally, the avascular epidermis is a keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium consisting of four distinct cell types and five
distinct layers. Most epidermal cells are keratinocytes. These epithelial
cells produce keratin, a tough, fibrous protein that gives the epidermis
its durability and protective capabilities. The layers of epidermis from
deep to superficial, are the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum
granulosum, stratum lucidum and stratum corneum. Dermis is the
dense fibrous connective tissue making up the bulk of the dermis has
two principal regions these are the papillary and reticular areas.

To sum up, the integumentary system is the set or organs forming the
outermost layer of a body. It comprises the skin and its appendages, its
serves to protect and maintain the body. The unforgettable learning of
this topic is about the appendages of the skin these are the hair, nails,
and cutaneous gland they all derive from epidermis but they reside in
the dermis. They originate from the basal layer and grow downward
into the deeper skin regions.
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal is made up of bones that are connected at joints. The

skeletal is subdivided into two subdivisions these are the axial skeleton
it is the bones that form the body’s longitudinal, and the appendicular
skeleton it is the bones of the girdles and limbs. Besides supporting the
body as an internal framework and protecting many of its organs, the
skeleton provides a system of levers the skeletal muscles use to move
the body.

Bone surfaces are not featureless and smooth but are scarred with an
array of bumps, holes and ridges called bone markings. Bone markings
fall into two categories: projections or processes that grow out from the
bone and serve as sites of muscle attachment or help form joints. The
206 bones of the adult skeleton are composed of two basic kinds of
osseous tissue that differ in texture. Compact bone is dense and looks
smooth and homogenous. Spongy bone is composed of small trabeculae
of bone and lots of open space. Bones may be classified further on the
basis of their gross anatomy into four groups these are long, short, flat,
and irregular bones. Although it is relatively light, bone is one of the
hardest materials in the body and it has a remarkable ability to resist
tension and shear forces that continually act on it. Thus, nature has
given us an extremely strong, exceptionally simple and flexible
supporting system without sacrificing mobility.
The axial skeleton can be divided into three parts these are the skull,
vertebral column and the bony thorax. The skull is composed of two
sets of bones these are the cranial bones and the facial bones. All but
one of the bones of the skull are joined by interlocking joints called
sutures. Only the mandible or lower jawbone is attached to the rest of
the skull by a freely movable joint.
The appendicular skeleton is composed of the 126 bones of the
appendages and the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which attach the limbs
to the axial skeleton. The upper and lower limbs differ in their
functions and mobility, but they have the same basic plan.

To sum up everything that have been stated so far, the human skeletal
is the internal framework oof the human body. It is composed of
around 270 bones at birth these total decreases to around 206 bones
by adulthood after some bones get fused together. The unforgettable
learnings that sir Johnryl teach us is about the parts of the anterior
and posterior human skeleton.

THE JOINTS AND BODY MOVEMENTS

Nearly every bone in the body is connected to, or forms a joint with, at
least one other bone. Joints perform two functions for the body. They
hold bones together and allow the rigid skeleton some flexibility so that
gross body movements can occur. Joints may be classified by structure
or by function. The structural classification is based on what separates
the articulating bones these are fibers, cartilage, or a joint cavity.
Structurally, there are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints.
The functional classification focuses on the amount of movement the
joint allows. On this basis, there are synarthroses or immovable joints,
amphiarthroses or slightly movable joints and diarthroses or freely
movable joints. Freely movable joints predominate in the limbs whereas
immovable and slightly movable joints are largely restricted to the axial
skeleton.
Every muscle of the body is attached to bone or other connective tissue
structures by at least two points these are the origin and the insertion.
Body movement occurs when muscles contract across diarthrotic
synovial joints. When the muscle contracts an its fibers shorten, the
insertion moves toward the origin. The type of movement depends on
the construction of the joint and on the position of the muscle relative
to the joint. The most common types of body movement that are
occurring at synovial joints of the body are flexion and extension of the
head, knee, and shoulders, abduction and adduction of the arm,
circumduction of the arm and lateral and medial rotation of the lower
limb around its long axis, supination and pronation of the forearm,
eversion and inversion of the foot and lastly dorsiflexion and plantar
flexion of the foot.

To sum up everything that have been stated so far, a joint is a point

where two bones make contact. Joints can be classified either
histologically on the dominant type of connective tissue functionally
based on the amount of movement permitted. As what I have said
earlier, the three joints in the body are fibrous, cartilaginous and
synovial. The unforgettable learnings in this topic that have been
discussed is about the body movements because we even make a dance
performance using the anatomical terms of movements in the body.
Through dancing it also helps us to memorize the anatomical terms
easier.
 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal,

smooth, and cardiac muscle. It permits movement of the body,
maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the body. The
muscular system in vertebrates is controlled through the nervous
system although some muscles can be completely autonomous. The
muscular system is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers.
Nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction.

The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, smooth and cardiac.
Skeletal muscle fibers occur in muscles which are attached to the
skeleton. They are striated in appearance and are under voluntary
control. Smooth muscle fibers are located in walls of hollow visceral
organs such as the liver, pancreas, and intestines except the heart,
appear spindle-shaped and are also under involuntary control. Cardiac
muscle cells are located in the walls of the heart, appear striped or
striated and are under involuntary control. The muscle of the head
serves many functions. For instance, the muscles of the facial
expression differ from most skeletal muscles because they insert into
the skin rather into bone. As a result, they move the facial skin,
allowing a wide range of emotions to be shown on the face. Other head
muscles are the muscles of mastication which are active during
chewing and the six extrinsic eye muscles located within the orbit,
which aim the eye. Neck muscles primarily move the head and
shoulder girdle.

To sum up, the muscular system helps us in everything especially in

moving our body. The unforgettable learning in this topic is about the
parts of the anterior and posterior superficial muscles of the body.
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is responsible for detecting external and internal

conditions. For example, when you touch something hot, the nervous
system is responsible for sending signals to our brain that tell us to
jerk our hand away from the heat. Neurons, are the communication
lines of the nervous system. Properties of a neuron’s plasma membrane
are responsible for carrying signals.

Because the nervous system is so complex, its structures are usually

considered in terms of two principal divisions these are the central
nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The
central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, which
interpret incoming sensory information and issue instructions. The
peripheral nervous system consists of cranial and spinal nerves,
ganglia, and sensory receptors. These structures serve as
communication lines as they carry impulses from the sensory receptors
to the CNS and from the CNS to the appropriate glands or muscle.
Generally, the brain is studied in terms of four major regions these are
the cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum.
The cerebral hemisphere is the most superior part of the brain. The
diencephalon is sometimes considered the most superior portion of the
brain stem. Continue inferiorly to identify brain stem structures, he
cerebral peduncles, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The
cerebellum is concerned with unconscious coordination of skeletal
muscle activity and control of balance and equilibrium.
The cranial nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system. The 12
pairs of cranial nerves primarily serve the head and neck. The cranial
nerves are numbered in order, and in most cases their names reflect
the major structures they control.

The cylindrical spinal cord plays a major role in spinal reflex activity
and provides neural pathways to and from the brain. Enclose within
the vertebral column, the spinal cord extends from the foramen
magnum of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra. Like the
brain, the spinal cord is protected and cushioned by meninges. In
humans, 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord and serve
the body area at their approximate level of emergence.
Because the spinal cord does not extend to the end of the vertebral
column, spinal nerves emerging from the inferior end of the cord travel
through the vertebral canal for some distance before exiting.
The gray matter of the spinal cord looks like a butterfly or the letter H.
The two posterior projections are called the dorsal or posterior horns.
The two broader anterior projections are the ventral or anterior horns.
The white matter of the spinal cord is composed of myelinated fibers,
most running to or from higher centers. Because of the irregular shape
of the gray matter, the white matter on each side of the cord is divided
into three regions these are the posterior, lateral, and anterior
columns. Tracts conducting sensory impulses to the brain are
ascending or sensory, tracts. Those carrying impulses from the brain to
the skeletal muscles are descending or motor, tracts.

To sum up everything that have been stated so far, I personally found

the nervous system to be the most complex system we learned about in
this class. I had no idea how much goes on inside our body in a mere 5
seconds that it takes us to respond to stimuli, such as touching
something that is too hot and moving our hand away to prevent injury.
The body is truly incredible. The unforgettable learnings about this
topic is about the 12 cranial nerves and also the major internal
structures of the diencephalon these are the thalamus, hypothalamus
and epithalamus.

THE SPECIAL SENSES

In contrast to the small and widely distributed general receptors, the

special sense receptors are large, complex sensory organs or localized
clusters or receptors. This page focuses on the functional anatomy of
each of the special sense organs individually but keep in mind that
sensory inputs are overlapping.

The adult human eye is a sphere some 2.5 cm in diameter. Only about
one-sixth of the eye’s anterior surface is observable, the remainder is
protected by a cushion of fat and the walls of the bony orbit. The ear,
which contains sensory receptors for hearing and equilibrium, is
divided into three major areas these are the outer ear, the middle ear,
and the inner ear. The outer and middle ear structures serve the needs
of the sense of hearing only, while inner ear structures function both
inn equilibrium and hearing receptions. The receptors for smell
(olfaction) and taste (gustation) are classified as chemoreceptors
because they respond to chemicals in solution. The olfactory
epithelium occupies an area of about 2.5 cm in the roof of each nasal
cavity. The taste buds, specific receptors for the sense of taste are
widely distributed in the oral cavity. Most are located in the tongue.
Each taste buds consists of a globular arrangement of two types of
epithelial cells these are the gustatory or taste cells which are actual
receptors cells, and supporting cells.
To sum up, the special senses detect the sensations of taste, smell,
hearing, equilibrium, and sight. Only in special sense organs in head
region. The unforgettable learnings in this topic are about the Weber
and Rinne tuning fork tests. The Weber test is to evaluate whether the
sound remains centralized or lateralizes to one side or other and the
Rinne test is to compare bone conduction and air conduction.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is the second major controlling system of the

body. Acting with the nervous system, it helps coordinate and integrate
the activity of the body’s cells. However, the nervous system uses nerve
impulses to bring about rapid control, whereas the more slowly acting
endocrine system employs chemical messengers or hormones, which
are released into the blood to be transported throughout the body.

The hormones produced by the major endocrine organs and the general
functions of each. Pituitary gland is located in the sella turcica of the
sphenoid bone. It has two functional areas, the posterior pituitary and
the anterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary is not an endocrine gland
in a strict sense because it does not produce the hormones it releases.
Instead, it stores two hormones transported to it along axons from the
hypothalamus. These are the oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
The anterior pituitary hormones secrete a number of hormones. Four of
these are tropic hormones which stimulate target organs that are also
endocrine glands, to secrete their hormones. These are the
gonadotropins - follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH), the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyrotropic
hormone (TSH). The other hormones produced by anterior pituitary are
not directly involved in the regulation of other endocrine glands of the
body these are the growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL).
To sum up, the endocrine system is a complex network of glands and
organs. The unforgettable learnings in this topic are about the thyroid
gland it composed of two lobes joined by a central mass. It is located in
the throat, just inferior to Adam’s apple. It produces two majors
hormones, thyroid hormone and calcitonin.

THE HEART

The major function of cardiovascular system is transportation. Using

blood as the transport vehicle, the system carries oxygen, digested
foods, cell wastes, electrocytes, and many other substances vital to the
body’s homeostasis to and from the body cells.

The heart, a cone-shaped organ approximately the size of a fist, is

located within the mediastinum, the medial cavity of the thorax. It is
flanked laterally by the lungs, posteriorly by the vertebral column, and
anteriorly by the sternum. Its more pointed apex extends slightly to the
left and rests on the diaphragm, approximately ate the level of the fifth
intercostal space. Its broader base, from which the great vessels
emerge, lies beneath the second rib and points toward the right
shoulder. In the body, the right ventricle of the heart forms most of its
anterior surface. The heart is enclosed within a double-walled serous
sac called the pericardium. The thin visceral pericardium or
epicardium, is closely applied to the outer heart surface. Even though
the heart chambers are bathed with blood almost continuously, this
blood does not nourish the myocardium. The blood supply the
nourishes the heart is provided by the right and left coronary arteries.
To sum up, the cardiovascular system delivers oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, and other important substances to cells and organs in the
body. It plays an important role in helping the body meet the demands
of activity, exercise, and stress. It also helps maintain body
temperature, among other things. The unforgettable learnings in this
topic are about the systemic and pulmonary circuits, the heart is a
double pump that serves two circulations. the right side of the heart
pumps blood through the pulmonary circuits to the lungs and back to
the left heart.
THE BLOOD

Blood is rather a viscous substance that varies from bright scarlet to a

dull brick red, depending on the amount of oxygen it is carrying. The
circulatory system of the average adult contains about 5.5 liters of
blood. More than 100 different substances are dissolved or suspended
in plasma, which is over 90% water. The composition of the blood
varies continuously as cells remove or add substances to the blood.

Blood is classified as type of connective tissue because it consists of a

non-living fluid matrix in which loving cells are suspended. The fibers
typical of a connective tissue matrix become visible in blood only when
clotting occurs. They then appear as fibrin threads, which form the
framework for clot formation. Three types of formed elements are
present in blood. The most numerous are the erythrocytes or red blood
cells, which are literally sacs of hemoglobin molecules that transport
oxygen. Leukocytes or white blood cells are part of the body’s
nonspecific defenses and the immune system, and platelets function in
homeostasis. Formed elements normally account for 45% of whole
blood, plasma for the remaining 55%.
To sum up everything that have been stated so far, the blood is a body
fluid in the circulatory system of humans and others vertebrates that
delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the
cells, and transports metabolic waste products away from those same
cells. The unforgettable learning in this topic is about the blood flow it
refers to the movement of blood through the vessels from arteries to the
capillaries and then into the veins. Pressure is a measure of the force
that the blood exerts against the vessels walls as it moves the blood
through the vessels.

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system provides the body with the nutrients essential for
health. The organs of this system ingest. Digest, and absorb food and
eliminate the undigested remains as feces. The digestive system
consists of a hollow tube extending from the mouth to anus, into which
a number of accessory organs or glands empty their secretions.

Food within this tube, the alimentary canal, is technically outside the
body because it has contact only with the cells lining tract. Before
ingested food is available to the body cells, it must be broken down
physically and chemically into its smaller diffusible molecules, a
process called digestion. The digested end products can then pass
through the epithelial cells lining the tract into the blood to be
distributed to the body cells, a process termed absorption.
The organs of the digestive system are separated into two major groups
these are the alimentary canal or gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and the
accessory digestive organs. The alimentary canal consists of the mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and anus.
The accessory structures include the teeth and the salivary glands,
gallbladder, liver, and pancreas, which release their products into the
alimentary canal. Essentially the alimentary canal walls have four
basic layers. From the lumen outward, these are the mucosa, the
submucosa, the muscularis externa, and the serosa. Each layers have
a predominant tissue type and plays a specific role in digestion.

To sum up, digestive system breaks down food into nutrients such as
carbohydrates, fats and proteins. They can then be absorbed into the
blood stream so the body can use them for energy, growth and repair.
Unused materials are discarded as feces. The unforgettable learnings in
this topic are about the accessory digestive organs.