CHAPTER 1

TOPIC 2
MOTOR CONTROL AND MOTOR LEARNING

Motor control

 Is a complex process involving the coordinated contraction of muscles due to the

transmission of impulses sent from the motor cortex to its motor units? It is “the process
of initiating, directing, and grading purposeful voluntary movement”.

 It is a top-down process of the nervous system that occurs before the actual movement
is performed (planning –> programming –> execution), that appropriately adjusts for
force, tone and timing.

 During the intended movement goal, the nervous system continues to assess its
performance and adjusts force, timing and tone accordingly with sensory information
from proprioceptors, visual and vestibular systems.

 This information that is obtained can be stored from future performance of the same task.
If this is then repeated, a new skill can be learnt.

 Motor Control Theories include production of reflexive, automatic, adaptive, and

voluntary movements and the performance of efficient, coordinated, goal-directed
movement patterns which involve multiple body systems (input, output, and central
processing) and multiple levels within the nervous system.
 BOX 1.2
Examples of Questions Studied by Motor Control Theorists
How is muscular activity organized and controlled?
How do the many different systems contributing to movement collectively organize to accomplish a
single goal?
What aspects of a movement are stored in memory?
How are reflexes involved in the control of movement?
What is the best way to recover the use of an injured joint?
Do experts use vision differently than do beginners when performing motor skills?
How do people maintain their balance when spinning around?
Why do most people find it difficult, if not impossible, to pat their head while rubbing their stomach?
Why do some skills become automatic?
How can people drive their cars for many miles without being conscious of thinking about driving?
Why do stroke patients have difficulty with speech and gait?
Why do people find it impossible to stop some movements once they have begun?
How do humans match perceptual information to appropriate motor commands?
What are the neurological bases for diseases of the motor control system such as Parkinson’s disease and
myasthenia Gravis?
Are people born possessing innate capacities limiting them in certain skills, or is their potential always
unlimited given sufficient practice?
How and why does alcohol affect movement control?
What changes occur in the brain as a result of learning a new motor skill?
Why are people good at some skills, but not at others?

MOTOR LEARNING

 The ability to develop a relatively permanent change in motor skills from novice to skilled
performance through practice or experience by engaging in activities that are currently
beyond an individual’s capabilities (Muratori, Lamberg, Quinn, & Duff, 2013; Gokeler et
al, 2013).

 It is when complex processes in the brain occur in response to practice or experience of a

skill resulting in changes in the central nervous system that allow for production of a new
motor skill.
 BOX 1.3
Examples of Questions Studied by Motor Learning Theorists
Should instructors demonstrate only how to perform skills correctly, or should errors also be demonstrated?
Should beginners be taught how to analyse their movement errors?
Should a performer focus attention on his or her bodily movements?
How can a coach or instructor estimate an individual’s potential for learning a particular skill?
When should part practice be used in teaching skills?
Are there recognizable stages in the process of skill learning?
Should skills which are intended to be performed in only one way, be practiced in only that way?
How frequently should learners be provided with corrective feedback?
What information should feedback convey?
How can bulletin boards and visual displays best be used as teaching aids?
Is the use of mirrors in teaching skills such as dance effective for learning?
Can skills be taught in ways to enhance long-term memory and limit forgetting?
Is slow-motion practice beneficial?
How much rest should be provided during individual practice sessions?
How much time should elapse between practice sessions?
Are there differences in the ways that individuals learn?
Should practice emphasize consistency, or variability?
What are the major problems learners face when first practicing a new skill?

In practice, the processes of motor control and motor learning comprise a symbiotic
blending of factors underlying the acquisition and production of motor skills (see Figure 1.1)

Motor Motor
Control Learning

FIGURE 1.1. The Interconnected Relationship of Motor Control and Motor Learning

Many factors influence the learning of motor skills, but it is common to classify them
into three distinct categories. These categories include the study of (1) the learner, (2) the
skill to be learned, and (3) the conditions under which the skill is learned. All three factors
play a significant role in the acquisition of motor skills. Any complete analysis of the learning
of motor skills, therefore, requires the consideration of each of these aspects of learning.
Considerations pertaining to the learner include factors such as age, sex, physical condition,
intelligence, psychological characteristics, and existing skill levels and previous experiences.
Individuals learn at different rates and benefit differently from various kinds of instructions.
An understanding of instructional processes must take such differences into account. The
nature of a skill being learned also plays a significant role in learning. Different skills benefit
from instructional and practice designs differently. The identification of these differences
and the classification of skills into categories relative to such differences are important
prerequisites to the study of effective instructional design. Motor skill instructors need to
know that what works when teaching one skill may not work well when instructing another
skill, not because of any differences in learners but because the skills are different. Finally,
the environment in which a skill is acquired impacts the effectiveness of learning. This
includes both the social and physical environments. Socially, whether a skill is practiced
alone or in the company of others, the nature of the instructor–learner relationship, and the
emotional experience of the learning environment all influence learning. Aspects of the
physical environment that influence learning are many and include the availability and use
of equipment, physical features of the environment, time of day, lighting conditions, and
environmental distractions. A special class of environmental influences entails the
biomechanical aspects of a learner’s bodily interaction with the physical environment, and
the ways in which both static and dynamic forces impact performance and learning. These
three factors influencing the learning of motor skills are illustrated in Figure 1.2.

The Learner
Previous skill learning
Level of motivation
Age and developmental readiness
Psychological characteristics
Fitness level
Bodily constraints on movement

Nature of the Skill Environment

Performed in isolation or with others Predictability of environment
Executed rapidly or over time Presence of observers
Perceptual demands Light, wind, surface conditions, etc.
Stable or changing conditions Environmental Context
Use of equipment (Background, etc.)
Rules constraining action Perceptual elements present in
environment

Figure 1.2 Factors Influencing the Learning of Motor Skills