CHAPTER II

(Curriculum Planning)

NORQUEZ MANGANSAKAN - MANGINDRA

Compiler

Objectives: By the end of this chapter, you must be able to:

1 Discuss different curriculum sources and influences;

2 Analyze different levels of curriculum planning; and
3 Identify different roles of teachers and school administrators in curriculum
planning.

Curriculum Sources and Influences

Tyler (1949) identified three major sources of curriculum: subject matter, society,
and learners. Accordingly, these curriculum sources need to be considered and examined
to identify the four elements of curriculum: goals, content, learning experiences, and
evaluation. It is important to understand the nature of the subject matter in order to provide
knowledge and skills that are essential to the nature of the discipline. This also helps in
selecting and designing curriculum contents.

Likewise, it is important to have a clear understanding of the nature of society in

developing a curriculum. This provides a more comprehensive idea of the needs,
demands, and problems of the society, and available resources that can be utilized in the
development and implementation of the curriculum (Tyler, 1949). In short, society as one
of the curriculum sources provides information about the context in which the curriculum
will be used. This is important to make the curriculum more relevant and responsive.

Understanding the learners is also important in curriculum development.

Understanding the learners include knowing their needs, nature, and interest, learning
styles and thinking styles. It also includes knowing the various issues and problems about
them. The learners are the direct subjects of the curriculum. Hence, making the learners
as one of the curriculum sources is important in selecting the learning experiences of the
curriculum (Tyler, 1949).

Society as Source of Curriculum

Society is an important source of curriculum. Teachers need to understand the

cultural, socio-economic, and political conditions of the people. Understanding the context
is important in developing a relevant and responsive curriculum (Tyler, 1949). It is useful
in selecting curriculum goals and objectives, content, and learning experiences (Taba,
1962; Stark & Lattuca, 1997; Oliva, 2005)

There are many changes in the society that need to be considered in the
curriculum. Science and technology continue to influence our everyday life and a new
science findings, new technology, and new information come in almost every single
minute of the day. The new world of economy also has its own issues and demands. For
example, 21st century skills and new forms of knowledge should be developed in the
curriculum in order to develop a world-class workforce.

In addition, the society is becoming multilingual and multicultural. Developing

cultural understanding and socio cultural consciousness among the learners is becoming
a necessity. Other pressing social issues like climate change, security problems,
diseases, poverty, and many others also affect the everyday life of people.

Educators and schools face the challenge of whether they will simply respond to
the needs and demands of the society or have education through its curriculum in order
to develop or create the kind of society that everyone wishes to have. There is a need to
put a balance between pursuing the utopian goals of education and its practical or
economic goals.

Activity 1. How do social issues, needs, and demands influence the curriculum in
terms of its content? (150 words)
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Learners as source of curriculum

Knowledge about the learners is one of the major sources of the curriculum.
Although the curriculum content is set by the Department of Education (DepEd),
Commission on Higher Education (CHED) or the Technical Education Skills Development
Authority (TESDA), educators and curriculum developers have tried to align the
curriculum to the needs and nature of the students. This process is done when faculty
members plan their individual syllabi, unit plans, and lesson plans as an interpretation of
the intended curriculum.

As students come from different provinces, they have different cultures, languages,
learning styles, needs, and types and levels of motivation. The students are different in
terms of socio-economic status and educational backgrounds (public or private). For
these, the students as one major source of curriculum, are supported by several
curriculum scholars and are well represented in their curriculum development models.

Discipline or subject matter as source of curriculum

Tyler (1949) identified the nature of the discipline or subject matter as one of the
main sources of curriculum. Different subjects are unique in terms of design and content.
There are specific skills and contents that should be emphasized in each of the
disciplines. In some cases, there are similarities in skills, concepts, and strands in different
subject that may be possible points for integration.

Understanding the nature of the discipline or subject matter requires educators to

closely analyze the contents prescribed by the Department of Education (DepEd)
especially the K-12 curriculum. The curriculum framework, curriculum goals, descriptions,
standards, and competencies in different subject will help educators understand what
should be taught and how to teach the different subjects.

The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) also prescribes guidelines in

different courses. Several curricular innovations and changes set by the government were
considered and strictly followed in designing the official curriculum of a particular school,
college, or university. The curricular requirements that include course title, course credit,
and course descriptions are based on the CHED Memorandum Orders (CMOs) which
CHED issued for different courses. For example CMO No. 20 series of 2013 included the
general education program for all undergraduate courses or programs in the Philippines.

Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA) also prescribes

different contents of the modules offered for each particular subject for vocational or
technical courses. The skills that should be learned including the materials needed and
the time that is required for training are clearly specified in each module

Curriculum Influences

Aside from the major curriculum sources, Stark and Lattuca (1997) identified the
three major factors that influence curriculum development: external, internal, and
organizational influences. Stark and Lattuca (1997) used the term curriculum influences
to refer to these three factors that are very influential in curriculum development.
According to them, these curriculum influences affect the whole academic plan that
incorporates a total blueprint for action, including the purposes, activities, and ways of
measuring success.
 External Influences
Society/ government
Discipline associations
Marketplace alumni

Organizational influences
Program relationships
Resources
Academic
government Plan

Internal influences
Faculty, students,
discipline, and program
Mission

Figure 2. Factors affecting academic Planning (Stark and Lattuca, 1997)

Understanding the different curriculum influences is useful in knowing the different

factors that are needed to be considered in developing a curriculum. It provides two
sources of data and information for developing curriculum. Knowing these curriculum
influences is useful in making the curriculum more relevant and responsive to the
educational system of the Philippines. A research on curriculum influences conducted by
Pawilen (2011) shows that the results of the Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with the
faculty members and administrators who identified several curriculum influences that they
always consider whenever they plan, design, develop, revise, and evaluate the
curriculum. These identified curriculum influences are shown in table 1. They affect
curriculum processes in the school level

Table 1 Curriculum Influences

1. Students/ Learners
2. College Philosophy, Vision, and Mission
3. K-12 Basic Education Curriculum
4. Admission and Retention Policies, and School Rules
5. Faculty Members
6. School Administrators
7. Requirements For Government Agencies
8. Licensure Examinations (For Higher Education)
9. Accreditation Standards
10. Market Demands
11. Alumni and Funding Sources
12. Media and Information And Communication Technologies
(ICT)
 13. Church And Church-Related Agencies (for Religious
Schools)
14. School Facilities and Other Resources
15. Other Disciplines or Courses and Programs Offered by the
School
16. Student Services

Students

The students are considered as the most influential among the different curriculum
influences especially in designing the implemented curriculum. Learners have different
interests, needs, talents, abilities, learning styles, and thinking preferences. All these are
important in course planning. Teachers believe that the students could learn more if their
interest and learning styles are considered when planning their courses. Many students
want a variety of learning experiences in their classes and practical application of their
lessons in real life situations.

They came from different families with different cultures, religious affiliations,
beliefs, language, and socioeconomic status. When teachers plan their courses they
always keep these in mind. They recognize that their previous experiences with the
students including the students’ performance in class or sources of valuable information
about the students’ capabilities. Many teachers observed during their classes that
students background specially the demographic characteristics influence their attitude
and performance toward learning. Thus, students bring with them culture in the school.

For college the academic background of the students is influential in curriculum

planning. As students took up their basic education in either public or private schools in
their provinces, their academic skills and learning habits differ from those of the city. For
instance some students have poor communication skills because of poor background in
English education in their basic education

School’s Vision Mission and Core Values

The school vision, mission, and core values are very influential factors in
developing the curriculum. They are the fundamental bases in developing the four
elements of curriculum goals and objectives, content, learning experiences, and
evaluation. These three factors are included in all the lesson plans or course syllabi to
ensure that the core values of the institution are included in the syllabi.

The vision, mission, and core values of the school are also reflected in the planned,
implemented, and hidden curriculum of the school. All faculty members are required to
reflect this type of education in their teaching, lesson plans, and in the syllabus. The
vision, mission, and core values of the school are reflections of what the institution can
contribute to the society and to the development of individuals. Students and alumni are
expected to possess the core values of their schools

Activity 2. What are your school’s vision, mission, and core values? Discuss your own
understanding of your school’s vision, mission, and core values. (250 words)
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Admission and Retention Policies

The third influential factor is admission and retention policies. These policies set
the standard of what kind of students are admitted and what are the things they need to
do as a students of the institution until they graduate. This is an important part of the
intended and implemented curriculum. School rules are set to give order and provide
smooth implementation of the curriculum. Rules also develop the hidden curriculum of
the school.

Faculty Members

The influence of faculty members is also considered important. Faculty members

bring with them their educational background, experiences, expertise, and personal,
professional, and political views on the institution. They also have different interests,
teaching styles, and philosophies which influence the way they plan, develop, and
implement the curriculum. In the basic education, teachers take the role of a second
parent to their students.

Many students believe in what they say and teach. They are not only seen as
models of high ethical life - students and other people also see them as intellectuals in
various subject areas. In a college level, teachers are seen as experts in their fields. They
are expected to know more about their subjects. The academic freedom enjoyed by
faculty members also allow them to modify and plan their syllabi based on their expertise
and researches. The behaviors of the faculty members also influence the hidden
curriculum in college. Sometimes their students take their professional and personal
views on certain issues seriously as a principle.

Teachers, as recognized by Stark and Lattuca (1997), are a major influence in

curriculum development. They are the key implementers of the curriculum. The success
of any curriculum and instruction highly depends on them. They need to be empowered
to make curricular and instructional innovations in their own schools. Teachers are
expected to be experts in the content of the subject they teach. They should also be
experts in pedagogy.

School Administrators and Board of Trustees

The influence of school officials and the school bureaucracy in curriculum

processes were recognized by several curriculum scholars liken Wiles and Bondi (2006),
and Stark and Lattuca (1997) among others. School administrators, including the board
of trustees, play an important role in providing curriculum leadership in schools, colleges,
and universities. Apart from setting and approving rules for the school, they administer
the planning, implementation, and evaluation of the curriculum. The administrators then
serve as the curriculum and instructional leaders. They provide administrative and
leadership support for the implementation of the curriculum. Their abilities and skills as
curriculum leaders and managers are essential in curriculum development,
implementation, and evaluation. Oliva (2005) consider them as part of the entire team of
curriculum workers in an institution. The academic preparation and previous experiences
of the administrators can also be noted to influence the development of the curriculum.

Accrediting Agencies

Accrediting agencies are equally influential in basic education and in higher

education like the DepEd and CHED, the accrediting agencies set the necessary
standards for curriculum instruction, faculty, and facilities, and influence how the curricular
programs are governed. Accrediting agencies determine the quality of the courses being
offered in an institution. As such, many schools especially private schools try their best to
improve the governance and implementation of their various curriculum and curricular
programs. Some accrediting agencies in the Philippines are the Association of Christian
Schools, Colleges, and Universities Accrediting Agency Incorporation (ACSCU-AAI)
Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools Colleges and Universities (PAASCU), and
the Accrediting Agency for Chartered Colleges and Universities in the Philippines
(AACCUP). These accrediting bodies are in charge of evaluating the quality of education
for each member institution based on criteria set by the accrediting agency
Government Policies and Agencies

The respondents identified government policies and agencies as most influential

in curriculum planning and development. In basic education, the Department of Education
issues Department Orders (DOs) and memoranda that serve as guide for all public and
private schools in the country. The Department of Education also prescribes the official
curriculum for basic education and issues the guidelines for operations for privateschools.
For tertiary education, the CHED, through its series of memorandum orders, prescribes
the minimum general education and professional courses, course credits and course
descriptions to be taken by the students. The CHED also prescribes the faculty
qualifications, facilities, and other requirements for the implementation and administration
of the courses.

Market Demands General

Market demands or the needs of the society are very influential in planning and
developing curriculum. It is imperative that students are prepared in terms of knowledge,
values, and skills to meet the needs and demands of different institutions in the society.
For example, graduates are expected to develop or possess 21st century skills. They are
expected to be technologically literate. They are also expected to develop various
literacies including functional literacy. Schools are expected to develop graduates that
can be assets and good citizens of the society

Alumni

The alumni are also considered as one of the external influences on curriculum
development. The alumni are very helpful in terms of donating money to supportprograms
for students, faculty scholarships, professional chairs, facilities and financing students’
activities. Besides financial help, their comments or their evaluation feedback based on
their previous experiences as students are very useful information for improving the
implemented curriculum of the school. The alumni are the living testimony of the
curriculum or the quality of education offered by a particular school

Media and Information Communications Technologies

Media and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) are two of the
external curriculum influences. The presence of technology, especially the internet,
enable students and teachers to access almost all the information they need for teaching
and learning. This allows students and faculty members to access online journal, papers,
and other information from the internet to be used for teaching and learning. Technology
connects the school to the global community.

In as much as ICT is changing the landscape of schooling, it is also challenging

how the courses are planned and implemented especially how the content of the
curriculum will be put together. Although it is expensive to have full ICT integration in
schools, school administrators try their best to achieve this goal. Computers, LCD
projectors, internet facilities, and other forms of technology are made available for
instructional purposes in the school.

The Church and Church Related Agencies

For religious schools, the different religious orders and the church play an
important role in the school. Many religious institutions serve as extension programs or
mission programs of the churches and religious orders that established them. The schools
also offer institutional requirements such as Bible subjects, theology, and Christian living
subjects. The subjects are required to all students. Religious schools also offer retreats,
chapel services, and other religious activities to their students.

School Facilities and Other Resources

School facilities and other resources are very important in the implementation of
the curriculum. The respondents explained that the facilities like classroom, libraries,
laboratories, ICT equipment, dormitories, school clinics, counseling office, canteen,
chapel for sectarian schools, and laboratories are very useful in providing quality
education especially in implementing the curriculum.

Student Services

The last among the influences are the existing student services or existing student
support system institutionalized by the schools. Among these services are the following:

• Campus ministry helps in the spiritual nourishment of the students in sectarian

schools
• Guidance and Counseling Services provides a professional help to students with
various personal and psychological concerns.
• Health Services response to various health related concerns of the students
through a clinic with full-time health workers
• Financial Assistance and Scholarships provide financial assistance to deserving
students.
 • Student Affairs Office guides the students in organizing activities and provides
all forms of support for academic and personal development of the students in the
school.

These curriculum influences and sources are very important in curriculum

development. Responding to these curriculum sources and influences helps curriculum
workers and developers in planning, developing, and implementing a relevant and
responsive curriculum for different learners and schools. They help everyone involved in
and affected by a curriculum understand the context in which one is developed. Moreover,
when evaluating a curriculum is curriculum sources and influences are the ones that are
looked into and reviewed.

Levels of Curriculum Planning

The planning of learning experiences is one of the most important professional

activities in education. It is an important activity since it largely determines the day-to-day
life of learners. There are seven situations that are involved in the planning of learning
experiences. They represent curriculum planning activities at:
1. the national level
2. the state level
3. the institution-system-wide level
4. the building level
5. the teacher team level
6. the individual teacher level
7. the classroom level with cooperative planning between students and teachers.

National level
Curriculum planning at the national level involves scholars of some particular
discipline from various institutions across the country. They discuss and decide to develop
and disseminate a programme, the existing one being either obsolete or inadequate to meet
the demands.
The stages involved in the planning process are:
1. identifying important subject matter, facts, principles, concepts, etc.
2. deciding on a sequence in which the subjects matter may be taught—from
specific to general or from easy to difficult, etc.
3. recommending activities through which students might best learn the subject
matter, including experiments, discussions etc.
4. listing supplementary materials for further studies in the particular subject area,
5. suggesting tests that learners might take to check their progress.

These stages are then put together to form sets of teaching/learning materials for
purposes of implementation. The underlying assumption, you would have noticed, is that
once developed, such curriculum projects or packages could be put in the hands of
teachers and quality education would be assured. The materials, thus produced, are often
branded ‘teacher proof’ since it is believed that teachers with less than desired skills or
knowledge would be working from the plans of scholars/ experts, and that the teachers
themselves don’t have to contribute to the content.
Though we do not have immediate answers with empirical evidence, it is worth
considering the following questions:
 • Can national level curriculum projects account for the characteristics of learners in
local institutions where the projects are supposed to be used?
• Are the subject-area scholars sufficiently knowledgeable about learner
characteristics to prepare curriculum plans for use in all the institutions?
• Are subject-area scholars better equipped than teachers to develop curriculum plans
in their area of specialization?
• How do national-level curriculum plans influence the professional role of teachers?
• Is it possible to develop curriculum plans that would be successful even when used
by relatively unskilled teachers?
State level
In this scene, a group of educators (teachers, principles, curriculum coordinators,
etc) form a committee under the State Education Department. The task of the Committee
is to recommend what ought to constitute the overall programme across the State. It
however depends upon the characteristics of the learners and the broad goals of education.
A series of meetings of the group over a course of several months culminates in the
production of a model to be sent to all the Institutions for implementation.
The issues pertaining to this level of curriculum planning are:
• Should the local authorities have the prerogative of setting up their own programmes
based on local needs and preferences?
• Are statewide programmes and standards necessary to ensure the quality of
education for learners across a state?
• Are State level personnel more qualified to develop curriculum plans than local
teachers are?
• How do State level curriculum guides and mandates affect the role of the Curriculum
Planning teachers at the local level?
System Wide Level.

This level consists of team members including teachers at all levels, coordinators
and some qualified citizens. This team aims at modification and improvement of goals,
studies what students are learning, recognizes loopholes and suggests steps for
improvement. It also arranges curriculum development projects and professional growth
activities. The issues at district level curriculum planning are:

• Which specific problem of the district can be referred to curriculum planning committee?
• How can we involve more of teachers, citizens and administrators in curriculum planning?
• Which topics are irrelevant?

Building level
This scene deals with a group of parents, teachers, administrators, counsellors and
students from a particular institution. They are supposed to work together to evolve a new
discipline policy for that institution.
The group works on the basis that a student’s encounter with personal and social
experiences is as important as with those experiences gathered from the academic
activities. Therefore, these personal and social experiences form part of the curriculum.
This situation represents a form of curriculum planning that result from the recognition that
students learn a great deal from what is termed the ‘hidden curriculum’. The hidden
curriculum includes such institutional features as governance structure, grouping patterns,
grading procedures, teacher expectations, etc. Since features like these do result in
learning, whether they are planned or unplanned, they need to be considered in conscious
efforts to plan the curriculum. That is to say, they must be planned in terms of purposes,
activities, evaluation devices and so on.
Hence the issues are:
• Should students be included on a building-level curriculum council? If so, in what
capacity, and how would student representatives be selected?
• To what extent should the aspects of hidden curriculum be considered to be sources
of learning for students?
Teacher-team level
This scene deals with a group of teachers representing different subject areas who
come together to develop a unit. This type of activity is known as inter-disciplinary
curriculum planning since it involves contributions from various subjects or disciplines of
knowledge.
The oft-repeated questions at this level of curriculum planning are:
• What might be the benefits of cooperative interdisciplinary planning?
• What are the factors that are believed to detract from the effectiveness of an
interdisciplinary team?
• How might aspects of various subjects be correlated with one another?

Individual teacher level

In this case, a teacher tries to take a decision about learning objectives—what the
teacher would like a group of students learn. In the area of subject matter or content, the
teacher will have to take decisions about important facts, principles, concepts and learner
outcomes that should be emphasized. The teacher must also plan different kinds of
activities and resources and ways to measure how well learners have accomplished various
objectives. At some stage, the teacher may search through various journals looking for
ideas about activities, gather background information, or consult other teachers. In the end,
the teacher decides on long-and short-term objectives as well as on the timing of various
activities. The teacher must then develop a set of plans for use on a daily or weekly basis.
In designing this kind of plan, a number of items must be considered, such as the
characteristics of the learners, the sequencing of activities, the appropriateness of various
learning materials, and the availability of resources. We must recognize here that the
planning orientations of prospective teachers are often limited to daily lesson planning. All
too often, little attention is paid to how these relate to long term unit plans. As a result, many
teachers may have difficulty in understanding the relationship between short and long term
plans with a wide range, and, in addition, may not realize the need for the latter. The
planning done by the individual teacher is probably the most critical in the range of
curriculum planning forms.
As a teacher you might be interested in the following questions:
• In developing curriculum plans for your teaching, do you consider both long and short
term learning objectives?
• What is the greatest problem you encounter in your curriculum planning?
• About how much time do you spend on curriculum planning? Is that time sufficient?
If not, how much more do you require? How do you arrange for it?
• What format do you use for formulating curriculum plans? How does your format
compare with that of other teachers?
• How often do you teach without having prepared curriculum plans?
• Do you feel the preparation of careful curriculum plans enhances your teaching?
• How often do you depart from your plans in teaching situations?
Cooperative curriculum planning level
This scene deals with a teacher and a group of learners. After discussions, the group
draws up a formal set of the plans, summarizing all of its discussions about what might be
done.
Here the teacher is guiding a group in formulating plans as to how they might study
a particular topic. The teacher and learners work together to decide any combination of the
‘what, how, who where, and when’ questions regarding the unit they are working on.
Whether one believes its use or not, student-teacher planning does represent a level and
form of curriculum planning. Its proximity to the actual group of learners and the possibilities
for including learner interest in plans lead some of its proponents to conclude that it is the
ultimate level of curriculum planning.
In this context let us consider the following issues:
• Can we involve learners in curriculum planning, if yes in what ways?
• What factors might inhibit learner participation in curriculum planning?
• What might be the benefits we gain from learner participation in curriculum planning?
• Should learners play a role in curriculum planning? If no, why not? If yes, what kind
of role?
At each of these levels there might be various issues to be looked into in order that the
curriculum planned will serve the set purpose. We have listed a few procedural issues
pertaining to each of these levels. There are still some pedagogical issues that demand out
attention which we have grouped into three categories for convenience and easy reference.
In sub-section 2.3.2 we shall take them up for discussion.

Activity 1. Which among the levels of curriculum planning is most important? Why? Should
the said level be skipped in curriculum planning?
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References:

http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/42023/1/Unit-2.pdf
https://www.owlgen.in/describe-the-levels-of-curriculum-planning/