CHAPTER II

(Curriculum Planning)

Objectives: By the end of this chapter, you must be able to:

1 Discuss different curriculum sources and influences;

2 Analyze different levels of curriculum planning; and
3 Identify different roles of teachers and school administrators in curriculum
planning.

Curriculum Sources and Influences

Tyler (1949) identified three major sources of curriculum: subject matter, society,
and learners. Accordingly, these curriculum sources need to be considered and
examined to identify the four elements of curriculum: goals, content, learning
experiences, and evaluation. It is important to understand the nature of the subject
matter in order to provide knowledge and skills that are essential to the nature of the
discipline. This also helps in selecting and designing curriculum content.

Likewise, it is important to have a clear understanding of the nature of society in

developing a curriculum. This provides a more comprehensive idea of the needs,
demands, and problems of the society, and available resources that can be utilized in
the development and implementation of the curriculum (Tyler, 1949). In short, society as
one of the curriculum sources provides information about the context in which the
curriculum will be used. This is important to make the curriculum more relevant and
responsive.

Understanding the learners is also important in curriculum development.

Understanding the learners includes knowing their needs, nature, interests, learning
styles, and thinking styles. It also includes knowing the various issues and problems
about them. The learners are the direct subjects of the curriculum. Hence, making the
learners one of the curriculum sources is important in selecting the learning experiences
of the curriculum (Tyler, 1949).

Society as Source of Curriculum

Society is an important source of curriculum. Teachers need to understand the

cultural, socio-economic, and political conditions of the people. Understanding the
context is important in developing a relevant and responsive curriculum (Tyler, 1949). It
is useful in selecting curriculum goals and objectives, content, and learning experiences
(Taba, 1962; Stark & Lattuca, 1997; Oliva, 2005)

Many changes in society need to be considered in the curriculum. Science and

technology continue to influence our everyday life and new science findings, new
technology, and new information come in almost every single minute of the day. The
new world of economy also has its own issues and demands. For example, 21st century
skills and new forms of knowledge should be developed in the curriculum in order to
develop a world-class workforce.

In addition, the society is becoming multilingual and multicultural. Developing

cultural understanding and socio-cultural consciousness among the learners is
becoming a necessity. Other pressing social issues like climate change, security
problems, diseases, poverty, and many others also affect the everyday lives of people.

Educators and schools face the challenge of whether they will simply respond to
the needs and demands of society or have education through its curriculum in order to
develop or create the kind of society that everyone wishes to have. There is a need to
put a balance between pursuing the utopian goals of education and its practical or
economic goals.

Activity 1. How do social issues, needs, and demands influence the curriculum in
terms of its content?

Learners as source of curriculum

Knowledge about the learners is one of the major sources of the curriculum.
Although the curriculum content is set by the Department of Education (DepEd),
Commission on Higher Education (CHED), or the Technical Education Skills
Development Authority (TESDA), educators and curriculum developers have tried to
align the curriculum to the needs and nature of the students. This process is done when
faculty members plan their syllabi, unit plans, and lesson plans as an interpretation of
the intended curriculum.

As students come from different provinces, they have different cultures,

languages, learning styles, needs, and types and levels of motivation. The students are
different in terms of socio-economic status and educational backgrounds (public or
private). For these, the students as one major source of curriculum, are supported by
several curriculum scholars and are well represented in their curriculum development
models.

Discipline or subject matter as source of curriculum

Tyler (1949) identified the nature of the discipline or subject matter as one of the
main sources of curriculum. Different subjects are unique in terms of design and
content. Some specific skills and contents should be emphasized in each of the
disciplines. In some cases, there are similarities in skills, concepts, and strands in
different subjects that may be possible points for integration.

Understanding the nature of the discipline or subject matter requires educators to

closely analyze the contents prescribed by the Department of Education (DepEd),
especially the K-12 curriculum. The curriculum framework, curriculum goals,
descriptions, standards, and competencies in different subjects will help educators
understand what should be taught and how to teach the different subjects.

The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) also prescribes guidelines in

different courses. Several curricular innovations and changes set by the government
were considered and strictly followed in designing the official curriculum of a particular
school, college, or university. The curricular requirements that include course title,
course credit, and course descriptions are based on the CHED Memorandum Orders
(CMOs) which CHED issued for different courses. For example, CMO No. 20 series of
2013 included the general education program for all undergraduate courses or
programs in the Philippines.

Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA) also prescribes

different contents of the modules offered for each particular subject for vocational or
technical courses. The skills that should be learned including the materials needed and
the time that is required for training are specified in each module.

Curriculum Influences

Aside from the major curriculum sources, Stark and Lattuca (1997) identified the
three major factors that influence curriculum development: external, internal, and
organizational influences. Stark and Lattuca (1997) used the term curriculum influences
to refer to these three factors that are very influential in curriculum development.
According to them, these curriculum influences affect the whole academic plan that
incorporates a total blueprint for action, including the purposes, activities, and ways of
measuring success.
 External Influences
Society/ government
Discipline associations
Marketplace alumni

Academic
Organizational influences
Program relationships
Resources
government Plan

Internal influences
Faculty, students,
discipline, and program
Mission

Figure 2. Factors Affecting Academic Planning (Stark and Lattuca, 1997)

Understanding the different curriculum influences is useful in knowing the

different factors that need to be considered in developing a curriculum. It provides two
sources of data and information for developing a curriculum. Knowing these curriculum
influences is useful in making the curriculum more relevant and responsive to the
educational system of the Philippines. Research on curriculum influences conducted by
Pawilen (2011) shows that the results of the Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with the
faculty members and administrators who identified several curriculum influences that
they always consider whenever they plan, design, develop, revise, and evaluate the
curriculum. These identified curriculum influences are shown in Table 1. They affect
curriculum processes at the school level.

Table 1 Curriculum Influences

1. Students/ Learners
2. College Philosophy, Vision, and Mission
3. K-12 Basic Education Curriculum
4. Admission and Retention Policies, and School Rules
5. Faculty Members
6. School Administrators
7. Requirements For Government Agencies
8. Licensure Examinations (For Higher Education)
9. Accreditation Standards
10. Market Demands
11. Alumni and Funding Sources
12. Media and Information And Communication Technologies
(ICT)
 13. Church And Church-Related Agencies (for Religious
Schools)
14. School Facilities and Other Resources
15. Other Disciplines or Courses and Programs Offered by the
School
16. Student Services

Students

The students are considered as the most influential among the different
curriculum influences especially in designing the implemented curriculum. Learners
have different interests, needs, talents, abilities, learning styles, and thinking
preferences. All these are important in course planning. Teachers believe that students
could learn more if their interests and learning styles are considered when planning their
courses. Many students want a variety of learning experiences in their classes and
practical application of their lessons in real-life situations.

They came from different families with different cultures, religious affiliations,
beliefs, language, and socioeconomic status. When teachers plan their courses, they
always keep these in mind. They recognize their previous experiences with the students
including the students’ performance in class or sources of valuable information about
the students’ capabilities. Many teachers observed during their classes that students'
backgrounds, especially the demographic characteristics influence their attitude and
performance toward learning. Thus, students bring with them culture in the school.

For college, the academic background of the students is influential in curriculum

planning. As students took up their basic education in either public or private schools in
their provinces, their academic skills and learning habits differed from those of the city.
For instance, some students have poor communication skills because of poor
background in English education in their basic education.

School’s Vision Mission and Core Values

The school's vision, mission, and core values are very influential factors in
developing the curriculum. They are the fundamental bases for developing the four
elements of curriculum goals and objectives, content, learning experiences, and
evaluation. These three factors are included in all the lesson plans or course syllabi to
ensure that the core values of the institution are included in the syllabi.

The vision, mission, and core values of the school are also reflected in the
planned, implemented, and hidden curriculum of the school. All faculty members are
required to reflect this type of education in their teaching, lesson plans, and in the
syllabus. The vision, mission, and core values of the school are reflections of what the
institution can contribute to society and the development of individuals. Students and
alumni are expected to possess the core values of their schools.

Activity 2. What are your school’s vision, mission, and core values? Discuss your
understanding of your school’s vision, mission, and core values.

Admission and Retention Policies

The third influential factor is admission and retention policies. These policies set
the standard of what kind of students are admitted and what are the things they need to
do as students of the institution until they graduate. This is an important part of the
intended and implemented curriculum. School rules are set to give order and provide
the smooth implementation of the curriculum. Rules also develop the hidden curriculum
of the school.

Faculty Members

The influence of faculty members is also considered important. Faculty members

bring with them their educational background, experiences, expertise, and personal,
professional, and political views on the institution. They also have different interests,
teaching styles, and philosophies which influence the way they plan, develop, and
implement the curriculum. In basic education, teachers take the role of a second parent
to their students.

Many students believe in what they say and teach. They are not only seen as
models of high ethical life - students and other people also see them as intellectuals in
various subject areas. At the college level, teachers are seen as experts in their fields.
They are expected to know more about their subjects. The academic freedom enjoyed
by faculty members also allows them to modify and plan their syllabi based on their
expertise and research. The behaviors of the faculty members also influence the hidden
curriculum in college. Sometimes their students take their professional and personal
views on certain issues seriously as a principle.

Teachers, as recognized by Stark and Lattuca (1997), are a major influence on

curriculum development. They are the key implementers of the curriculum. The success
of any curriculum and instruction highly depends on them. They need to be empowered
to make curricular and instructional innovations in their schools. Teachers are expected
to be experts in the content of the subject they teach. They should also be experts in
pedagogy.

School Administrators and Board of Trustees

The influence of school officials and the school bureaucracy in curriculum

processes was recognized by several curriculum scholars like Wiles and Bondi (2006),
and Stark and Lattuca (1997) among others. School administrators, including the board
of trustees, play an important role in providing curriculum leadership in schools,
colleges, and universities. Apart from setting and approving rules for the school, they
administer the planning, implementation, and evaluation of the curriculum. The
administrators then serve as the curriculum and instructional leaders. They provide
administrative and leadership support for the implementation of the curriculum. Their
abilities and skills as curriculum leaders and managers are essential in curriculum
development, implementation, and evaluation. Oliva (2005) considers them as part of
the entire team of curriculum workers in an institution. The academic preparation and
previous experiences of the administrators can also be noted to influence the
development of the curriculum.

Accrediting Agencies

Accrediting agencies are equally influential in basic education and in higher

education like the DepEd and CHED, the accrediting agencies set the necessary
standards for curriculum instruction, faculty, and facilities, and influence how the
curricular programs are governed. Accrediting agencies determine the quality of the
courses being offered in an institution. As such, many schools especially private schools
try their best to improve the governance and implementation of their various curriculum
and curricular programs. Some accrediting agencies in the Philippines are the
Association of Christian Schools, Colleges, and Universities Accrediting Agency
Incorporation (ACSCU-AAI) Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools Colleges and
Universities (PAASCU), and the Accrediting Agency for Chartered Colleges and
Universities in the Philippines (AACCUP). These accrediting bodies are in charge of
evaluating the quality of education for each member institution based on criteria set by
the accrediting agency.

Government Policies and Agencies

The respondents identified government policies and agencies as most influential

in curriculum planning and development. In basic education, the Department of
Education issues Department Orders (DOs) and memoranda that serve as guides for all
public and private schools in the country. The Department of Education also prescribes
the official curriculum for basic education and issues the guidelines for operations for
private schools. For tertiary education, the CHED, through its series of memorandum
orders, prescribes the minimum general education and professional courses, course
credits, and course descriptions to be taken by the students. The CHED also prescribes
the faculty qualifications, facilities, and other requirements for the implementation and
administration of the courses.

Market Demands General

Market demands or the needs of society are very influential in planning and
developing curricula. Students must be prepared in terms of knowledge, values, and
skills to meet the needs and demands of different institutions in society. For example,
graduates are expected to develop or possess 21st-century skills. They are expected to
be technologically literate. They are also expected to develop various literacies
including functional literacy. Schools are expected to develop graduates who can be
assets and good citizens of society.

Alumni

The alumni are also considered as one of the external influences on curriculum
development. The alumni are very helpful in terms of donating money to support
programs for students, faculty scholarships, professional chairs, facilities, and financing
students’ activities. Besides financial help, their comments or their evaluation feedback
based on their previous experiences as students are very useful information for
improving the implemented curriculum of the school. The alumni are the living testimony
of the curriculum, or the quality of education offered by a particular school.

Media and Information Communications Technologies

Media and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) are two of the
external curriculum influences. The presence of technology, especially the internet,
enables students and teachers to access almost all the information they need for
teaching and learning. This allows students and faculty members to access online
journals, papers, and other information from the internet to be used for teaching and
learning. Technology connects the school to the global community.

In as much as ICT is changing the landscape of schooling, it is also challenging

how the courses are planned and implemented, especially how the content of the
curriculum will be put together. Although it is expensive to have full ICT integration in
schools, school administrators try their best to achieve this goal. Computers, LCD
projectors, internet facilities, and other forms of technology are made available for
instructional purposes in the school.

The Church and Church Related Agencies

For religious schools, the different religious orders and the church play an
important role in the school. Many religious institutions serve as extension programs or
mission programs of the churches and religious orders that established them. The
schools also offer institutional requirements such as Bible subjects, theology, and
Christian living subjects. The subjects are required to all students. Religious schools
also offer retreats, chapel services, and other religious activities to their students.

School Facilities and Other Resources

School facilities and other resources are very important in the implementation of
the curriculum. The respondents explained that facilities like classrooms, libraries,
laboratories, ICT equipment, dormitories, school clinics, counseling offices, canteen,
chapel for sectarian schools, and laboratories are very useful in providing quality
education, especially in implementing the curriculum.

Student Services

The last among the influences are the existing student services or existing
student support systems institutionalized by the schools. Among these services are the
following:

 Campus ministry helps in the spiritual nourishment of the students in sectarian

schools
 Guidance and Counseling Services provides professional help to students with
various personal and psychological concerns.
  Health Services response to various health-related concerns of the students
through a clinic with full-time health workers
 Financial Assistance and Scholarships provide financial assistance to deserving
students.
 The Student Affairs Office guides the students in organizing activities and
provides all forms of support for the academic and personal development of the
students in the school.

These curriculum influences and sources are very important in curriculum

development. Responding to these curriculum sources and influences helps curriculum
workers and developers in planning, developing, and implementing a relevant and
responsive curriculum for different learners and schools. They help everyone involved in
and affected by a curriculum understand the context in which one is developed.
Moreover, when evaluating a curriculum is curriculum sources and influences are the
ones that are investigated and reviewed.