1.

List the general functions of the Nervous System:

-a -a) Uses millions of sensory receptors to MONITOR CHANGES occurring inside and outside the body.

It processes and interprets -b sensory input and makes decisions about what should be done at each moment a process called INTEGRATION.

IT THEN effects a -c response BY ACTIVATING MUSCLES OR GLANDS. The response is called Motor Output.

Compare and contrast the roles of the Endocrine system and the Nervous system:

Compare:
Both are ways of carrying a message to cause a response.

Difference:
Nervous system uses electrical impulses that are extremely fast.

Endocrine system secretes hormones with are relatively slow in getting to the effectors.

3. Differentiate the central and peripheral nervous system.

a)Brain and spinal cord

b)Integrating and command center of the nervous system

-c Interprets incoming sensory input and issues instructions based on past experience and current conditions.

a)All the spinal nerves that connect to the spinal cord. b) Cranial nerves that carry impulses to and from the brain.

c) Links all parts of the body to the central nervous system.

4. Differentiate the afferent division and the efferent divisions of the nervous system:

The Afferent system consist of nerve fibers that carry messages to the central nervous system from sensory receptors located in various locations on the body.

The efferent division carries impulses from the central nervous system to effector muscles, organs, or glands.

5. Explain the two different parts of the afferent system:

a)Somatic Sensory Fibers: Sensory fibers delivering impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints.

b) Visceral afferents:
Sensory fibers that are transmitting impulses from the visceral organs.

6. Describe the two divisions of the efferent (motor) division:

(a)Voluntary nervous system: Allows us to voluntarily control our skeletal muscles.

(b) Autonomic nervous system: Regulates events that are automatic or involuntary, such as the activity of smooth and cardiac muscles and glands.

7. Define and explain the relationship between Neurons and Neuroglia:

Neurons = nerve cells

Neuroglia = clumps of supporting cells

Relationship? The neuroglia acts like a nerve glue. It supports, insulates, and protects the neurons.

Astrocytes!
1. Starshaped. Makes up of the neural tissue.

Astrocytes!
2. Have numerous projections with swollen ends tht cling to neeurons, bracing them

and achoring

Them to their nutrient supply lines the capillaries.

Astrocytes!
3. Allow for exchanges to occur between the capillaries and the neurons

Astrocytes!
4. Provides a living barrier between the neuron and any contaminates that may be in the blood.

Astrocytes!
5. Helps control
the chemical environment in the brain by picking up excess ions and recapturing released neurotransmitters

(b) MICROGLIA
Phagocytes that eat debris dead brain cells, bacteria, and other junk

Ependymal cells
a)Lines the cavities of the brain and spinal cord.

Ependymal cells
b) The beating of their cilia help to circulate the cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities.

4) Oligodendrocytes
Wraps their flat extensions tightly around the nerve fibers, producing fatty insulating coverings called myelin sheaths

5. Schwann Cells
a) Makes up the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous system.

Satellites cells

Acts as protective, cushioning cells

9. Compare and contrast neurons and neuroglia:

Compare:
They look alike!

Contrast:
Neurons transmit nerve impulses ; Neuroglia does not. Neuroglial cells will reproduce by mitosis. Nerve cells will not.

Most brain tumors are GLIOMAS or tumors formed by neuroglial cells.

10.Neuron Anatomy!
(a) Cell body: contains the nucleus and is the metabolic center of the cell.

(b) Dendrites: cell fibers that receive the incoming message and directs it towards the cell body. One neuron may have thousands of dendrites. Dendrites keep growing.

Axon: Cell fiber that transmits the message away from the neuron cell body.

Axonal Terminals:
Found at the end of the axon. They secrete the neurotransmitters that form a chemical bridge between neurons.

SYNAPSE
Gap between neurons

Myelin:
Whitish fatty material that insulates the neuron.

Neurilemma:
Inner lining of the myelin sheath. Forms a protective membrane around the neuron.

Nodes of Ranvier:
Gaps along the myelin sheath covering the axon. The electrical signal leap-frogs from one node to the next node.

Draw a neuron, label the cell body, dendrites, axon, and axonal terminals.
Draw a neuron, label the cell body, dendrites, axon, axonal terminals

Dendrite

Cell body

Axon Axon

Terminals

11. Explain the disease Multiple Sclerosis?

a) It is an auto immune disease in which a protein component in the myelin sheath is attached and destroyed.

b) Myelin sheaths around the neurons are gradually destroyed, converted to hardened sheaths called sclerosis.

c) Electrical signal is short circuited, and the affected person loses the ability to control his or her muscles and becomes increasingly disabled.

12.Differentiate the following terms as they apply to the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.m

Describe: Cluster of Neuron cell bodies.

CNS PNS NUCLEI Ganglia

Describe:
Bundles of nerve fibers CNS TRACTS

PNS

NERVES

13. Explain why some tissue of the Central Nervous System is referred to as white matter and some is referred to as Gray matter:

Outer layer of tissues do not have a myelin sheath, appear gray = gray matter. Inner layer of tissues do have a myelin sheath, appear white = white matter.

14. Classify neurons by function:

Afferent
AKA = Sensory Function: transmitts the electrical impulse to the brain.

Association
AKA = Interneurons Function: Integration of signal occurs in the interior of the brain.

Efferent
AKA = Motor Neurons

Functions: Transmitts the response down to the appropriate effectors (muscles, glands, etc)

15. Differentiate Cutaneous sense organs and proprioceptors:

Cutaneous sense organs = sensory receptors in the skin.

Proprioceptros : detect the amount of stretch, or tension in skeletal muscles, their tendons, and joints.

16. Structural Classification:

Multipolar Neuron

-1) Most common

-2) Several fibers extending directly from the cell body -3) 1 axon and thousands of dendrites.

-4) Make up of Motor and association neurons.

Bi polar Neuron

-1) Only two fibers connected to the cell body.

-2) 1 dendrite and 1 axon. -3) Commonly found in the nerves of the eye and ear.

Uni polar Neuron

a) 1 long process with the cell body attached at the middle.

b) Sensory neurons in the perpherial nervous system.

17. Identify the two functional properties of neurons:

a) Irritability = the ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it to a nerve impulse.

b) Conductivity = the ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands

18. Describe the events that lead to the generation of a nerve impulse:

-1 The external face of the membrane is slightly positive; its internal face is slightly negative. -2 The chief extracellular ion is Na+, chief intracellular ion is K+. -3 The membrane is impermeable to both.

-1 A stimulus changes the

permeability of a patch of the membrane, and sodium ions diffuse rapidly into the cell. -2 The inside and outside switch polarity. -3 If the stimulus is strong enough, an action potential begins.

-1 Depolarization of the first membrane patch causes permeability changes in the adjacent membrane, and the events described in (b) are repeated.
-2 the action potential propagates rapidly along the entire length of the axon.

-1 Potassium ions diffuse out of the cell as membrane permeability changes again, restoring the negative charge on the inside of the membrane and the positive charge on the outside surface

-2 Membrane is at rest again until next time.

Discuss two ways that the conduction of impulses can be slowed down:
19.

Alcohol, sedatives, anesthetics Blocks nerve impulses by reducing membrane permeability to the Na ions. No Na entry No action potential.

Cold and Continuous pressure

Hinders impulse conduction because they interrupt blood flow. Ex. Fingers go numb from holding ice. Foot going to sleep. Warm or release pressure, blood flow returns, impulses transmission returns.

Explain how an impulse travels from one neuron to another:

20.

a)Electrical signal travels down the axon until it reaches the end.
b) Between each neuron is a space called the synapse.

c)Once the signal reaches the axon endings, a chemical neurotransmitter is secreted which forms a chemical bridge to the dendrites of the next cell.

d) Once the signal is across the synapse, Chemical NEUROMODULATORS remove the neurotransmitters and the synapse is open again.

21. What is a Reflex?

Rapid, predictable and involuntary responses to a stimulus

22. What is a Reflex ARC?

The Neural Pathway I which a reflex travels

In a reflex arc, the stimulus comes up through the afferent pathway to the spinal cord. Instant integration occurs in the cord, and the response is rushed out through the efferent pathway.

23. Differentiate the two types of Reflexes:

AUTONOMIC REFLEXES
Organs involved: smooth muscles, heart, glands

Activity? Digestion, elimination, secretion of saliva, dialation of pupils are a few examples.

Somatic Reflexes
Organs involved: Skeletal Muscle

Activity? Quick movement to avoid damage to tissue. Part of your survival mechanism.

List and Identify the 5 parts of the reflex arc:

Sensory Receptors: Reacts to a stimulus Effector Organ: The muscle or gland eventually stimulated

Afferent Neurons = Carry stimulus to the spinal cord. Spinal Cord= Integration center. Stimulus jumps from afferent neurons into integration neurons in Cord, then to efferent neurons .

Efferent neurons = Carry the response back to the effectors.

25. Describe the physical appearance of the brain. ( in other words, what does it actually look like?

-1 Two good fistfuls of pinkish gray tissue. -2 Wrinkled like a walnut

-3 texture like cold oatmeal -4 weight approximately 3 pounds.

26. Describe the five major regions of the brain:

27.List the traits of the Cerebral Hemisphere:

-1 Largest part of the brain -2 Front of brain

-3 Wrinkled surface -4 Controls sense of being, consciousness and voluntary action.

28. Define: Gyri = elevated ridges of the cerebrum. Sulci = shallow grooves between the ridges Fissures = deeper grooves in the cerebrum.

29. What is the Longitudinal fissure? Cleft that separates the right and left hemisphere.

30. Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes:

31.Identify the following brain terms: Primary motor area:

Portion of the frontal lobe that allows us to consciously move our skeletal muscles.

Pyramidal tract = Major voluntary motor tract which descends into the spinal cord.
Broacas area = Specialized portion of the cerebrum that is involved in our ability to speak.

Damage to the broaca area will hinder you from vocalizing your words. You know what you want to say, but you cant get the words out.
Speech area = Area that allows you to mentally understand speech.

Cerebral cortex = Clusters of neural cell bodies that control sensory and motor skills. Located in the upper gray matter of the cerebrum.

Corpus Callosum = A very large fiber tract that connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain. This is important because some activities are hemisphere specific!

Basal Nuclei = Isolated islands of gray matter buried deep within the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres. Help regulate voluntary motor activities by modifying instructions sent to the skeletal muscles by the primary motor cortex

32.Identify the following diseases:

Huntingtons Cholera -1 A genetic disease in which the individual is unable to control muscles and exhibts abrupt, jerky, and almost continuous movements.

-2 Caused by a problem with the basal nuclei.

Parkinsons disease
Problems initiating movement! Persistent hand tremor in which their thumb and index finger make continuous circles with one another in what is called the pill-rolling movement.

Caused by a deficiency in the neurotransmitter dopamine.

33.What is the DIENCEPHALON? The diencephalon sits atop the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres.

34.List the major structures of the diencephalon: -1 THALAMUS

-2 HYPOTHALAMUS -3 EPITHALAMUS

35. LIST THE ROLE OF THE FOLLOWING PARTS OF THE DIENCEPHALON:

THALAMUS A RELAY STATION FOR SENSORY IMPULSES PASSING UPWARD TO THE SENSORY CORTEX

Hypothalamus
Autonomic nervous system center that regulates body temperature, water balance, and metabolism.

Center for many drives and emotions.

-a Limbic system Center of our emotions. Controls our sex drives and other pleasure centers.

Pituitary gland = hangs from the anterior floor of the hypothalamus by a slender stalk. Master gland. Controls all glandular activity of the body.

Mammilary bodies:
Reflex centers involved in our sense of smell.

Epithalamus:
Top layer of the diencephalon

Pineal Gland:
The pineal gland is our internal seasonal clock. Allows us to pre-set our mind to go to sleep at a certain time, and get up at a certain time. Tells other mammals when to hybernate.

Choroid plexus:
Knots of capillaries that FORMS THE CEREBROSPINAL FLUID.

36. IDENTIFY THE FOLLOWING PARTS OF THE BRAIN STEM:

Reticular Formation:
Involved in motor control of the visceral organs.

Reticular activating system:

Plays a role in consciousness and the awake/sleep cycle. Damage to this area can result in permanent COMA, because you lose the ability to wake up!

Mid Brain:
Portion of the brain that lies between the forebrain and the hindbrain.

Cerebral aqueduct =
A tiny canal that travels through the midbrain and connects the third ventricle of the diencephalon to the fourth ventricle below.

Cerebral peduncles =
Two bulging fiber tracts which convey ascending and descending impulses.

Corpora quadrigemina =
Four rounded protrusions of the midbrain that are involved with vision and hearing.

Pons =
Lies just below the midbrain. Mostly fiber tracts Involved in the control of breathing.

Medulla Oblongata:
Bottom part of the brain. Merges with the spinal cord

Controls autonomic visceral functions

Cerebellum: Located under to occipital lobe of the cerebrum. Has two hemispheres Coordinates and fine-tunes all motor functions leaving the cerebrum.

37. Discuss Antaxia:

If the cerebellum is damaged, by a blow to the head, a tumor, or a stroke,movements become clumsy and disorganized. Victims cannot keep their balance or coordinate normal activities.

38.List the three factors provided to protect the Central Nervous System: a)Skull and Vertebral column

b)Cerebrospinal Fluid
c)Meninges

39. Describe the three parts of the Meninges:

DURA MATER:
-a Term means Tough Mother; A double layer membrane that surrounds the brain.

-b One of the layers is attached to the inner surface of the skull forming the PERIOSTEAL LAYER.

-C The other layer, called the meningeal layer, forms a protective blanket around the brain itself and continues as the dura mater of the spinal cord.

-d The two layers of the dura mater are fused together except in 3 areas where they fold over to form That attaches the brain to the skull

Arachnoid mater -a middle weblike meningeal layer -b Its threadlike extensions span the subarachnoid and attaches the arachnoid mater to the pia mater.

Pia mater A very gentle, delicate layer that clings tightly to the surface of the brain and spinal cord, following every fold.

40.Describe the
Sub- arachnoid space: A hollow between the Arachnoid layer and the pia mater. Filled with Cerebrospinal fluid.

41. Describe the following disease:

MENINGITIS

A bacterial or viral infection of the meninges.

Dangerous because it can spread to the Central Nervous System and develop into Encephalitis. Meningitis is diagnosed by withdrawing a sample of the cerebrospinal fluid from the sub arachnoid space

42. Describe the composition of the cerebrospinal fluid, and describe its function:

Composition?
A watery broth similar to the make up of blood plasma, from which it forms. However, it contains less protein, more vitamin C ,and its ion compostion is different

Function?
Flows in and around the brain to provide a watery cushion that protects the fragile nervous tissue from blows and other trauma.

43. Discuss the formation and function of the BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER!

FORMATION: The entire brain and spinal cord is SHIELDED from the trash in the blood stream by a wall of nearly impermeable Capillaries.

Function? To prohibit metabolic waste like Urea, proteins, and toxins and most drugs from reaching the brain.

The blood barrier cannot stop fats, respiratory gases, and other fatsoluble molecules. This explains why blood-borne alcohol, nicotine, and anesthetics can affect the brain.

44. Identify the following brain dysfunctions:

Pops note
The brain can be damaged during an injury due to: A hard blow that tears nervous tissue. Damage to nerve tissue and the brain bounces around inside the skull.

CONCUSSION
-1. Sharp blow. -2 Become dizzy

-3 No permanent brain damage.

Contusion Bruising of the brain usually due to the brain being bounced around inside the skull. Tissue damage, swelling.

CEREBRAL EDEMA
Death may occur as the brain begins to swell out of control. With no room for the swollen tissue to go, the brain begins to crush itself within the confines of the skull.

Add to study guide! 3RD

STROKE! Leading cause of death

Occurs when blood circulation to a brain area is blocked by a blood clot or a ruptured blood vessel. Brain tissue dies.

Motor Aphasis
Brain damage of the Broca area. Person can no longer speak.

Sensory Aphasia
A person loses the ability to understand written or spoken language.

TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK Temporary constriction of blood flow. May last 5 50 minutes.Symptoms: numbness,temporary paralysis, impaired speech.

Alzheimers Disease -1 A progressive decay of the brain that ultimately results in dementia
May begin at middle age and get progressively worse over time.

Victims of Alzheimers disease have Memory loss in their short term memory.

Become irritable, moody, confused and sometimes violent. Ultimately, hallucinations and death.

No cure, no Treatment.

45. Describe the construction of the spinal cord: -1 The gray matter of the spinal cord looks like a butterfly or the letter H.

-2 The two posterior projections are the dorsal,or posterior,horns and the two anterior projections are the ventral or anterior horns.

-3 The gray matter surrounds the central canal of the cord, which contains the Cerebrospinal fluid.

46.Describe the following spinal cord structures:

Central canal The hollow inside the backbone. Full of cerebrospinal fluid. Houses the spinal cord.

DORSAL ROOT
Site where the sensory neurons enter the spinal cord. afferent

VENTRAL ROOT
Site where the motor neurons exit the spinal cord. efferent

47. Disease: FLACCID PARALYSIS Nerve impulses do not reach the muscles affected; thus no voluntary movement of those muscles is possible.

48. What is the Peripheral Nervous System?

The peripheral Nervous system consist of nerves and ganglia found OUTSIDE the Central Nervous System.

49. What is a NERVE?

A bundle of neuron Fibers found outside the

Central Nervous System.

50. Describe the Structure of a Nerve:

-a Within a nerve, neuron

fibers are wraped in protective connective tissue coverings.

-b Each fiber is surrounded by a delicate connective tissue sheath = endoneurium

-c Groups of fibers are bound by a coarser connective tissue wrapping =Perineurium to form fascicles. -d Finally, all the fascicles are bound together by a tough fibrous sheath, the Epineurium to form the nerve.

51. Identify the FUNCTION of the following 12 Cranial Nerves:

OLFACTORY
Carries impulses for the sense of smell.

Optic
Carries impulse for vision

Oculomotor
Supplies motor fibers that control the movements of the eye, eye lid, and pupil size.

Trochlear
.Supplies motor function for the Superior Oblique Eye muscle.

Trigeminal
Conducts sensory impulses from the skin of the face and mucosa of the nose and mouth; also contains motor fibers that activate the chewing muscles

Abducens
Supplies motor fibers to the lateral rectus muscle, which rolls the eye laterally.

Facial
. Activates the muscles of
facial expression and the lacrimal and salivary glands. Carries sensory impulses from the taste buds of anterior t0ngue.

Vestibulocochlear
.Transmits impulses for BALANCE and HEARING.

Glossopharyngeal
.Promotes swallowing and salivary production.

Carries impulses for posterior taste buds and from pressure receptors in the neck.

Vagus
Carry impulses to and from the pharynx, larynx, and the abdominal and thoracic viscera.

Accessory
Mostly motor fibers that activate the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.

Hypoglossal
. Motor fibers control tongue movements; sensory fibers carry impulses from the tongue.

52. Describe Spinal Nerves:

The 31 pairs of spinal nerves are formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord.

53.Define Plexus
Complex network of nerves which serve the sensory needs of the limbs.

54. List the body areas served by the following plexuses:

Cervical
Body areas served: Diaphragm, muscles of the neck and shoulders. Result of damage: Respiratory paralysis and death if not treated immediately.

Brachial Muscles of the shoulder, forearm, and hands Result of damage: Paralysis of deltoid, Wristdrop, Inability to pick up small objects.

Lumbar Body areas: Lower abdomen, buttocks, thighs, skin of leg and thigh.
Result of damage: Inability to lift leg or flex thigh. Loss of skin sensations.

Sacral
Body Areas: Lower Trunk, lower leg and foot, gluteus muscles of the hip. Results of damage: inability to flex hip or lift knee makes you shuffle when you walk.

55.What is the Autonomic Nervous System? The motor subdivision of the PNS that controls body activities automatically.

56. Compare the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic divisions of the Autonomic nervous system:

Sympathetic Mobilizes the body during extreme situations such as fear, exercise, or rage.

Parasympathetic Allows us to unwind and conserve energy.

57. Contrast the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on the following organs:

Heart Sympathetic: Increase heart rate.

Parasympathetic: Slows down heart rate.

Lungs Sympathetic: Dialates the bronchioles

Parasympathetic: Constricts bronchioles

Digestive System Sympathetic: Decreases the activity of the digestive system, Contracts all digestive sphincters. Parasympathetic: Speeds up the digestive system, relaxes sphincters.

Blood Vessels Sympathetic: Constricts blood vessels and raises blood pressure. Parasympathetic: No effect

58. Explain how the following risk factors may affect the fetal development of the brain:

Maternal Infections: Can causes deafness and brain damage.

Maternal Smoking:
Reduces the amount of blood reaching the fetus. Could cause brain cells to die causing brain damage in the baby.

Overexposure of pregnant mom to radiation or ingestion of drugs by mom

Radiation and certain chemicals that are introduced to the developing fetus early in development will change the developmental pathway. Brain will not develop normally.

59.Diseases:
Spinal Bifida:

Results when the backbone does not close completely.

Some cases are mild and no neurological damage occurs, some are serous where the child is unable to control the bowels or bladder. Lower limbs are paralyzed.

Anencephaly:
A failure of the cerebrum to develop, resulting in a child who cannot hear, see, or process sensory inputs

Cerebral Palsy: A neuromuscular disability in which the voluntary muscles are poorly controlled and spastic due to brain damage. About of victims have seizures, retardation, and vision/hearing problems.

60. Explain the decline in brain size and weight that occurs with age:

Young adult = brain maximum size. Over next 60 years, neurons die and are not replaced.

Sympathetic nervous system slowly breaks down. Lack of blood flow to the brain leads to senility.

61.Define Senility and list some possible causes:

Define: Complete brain fatigue.

Causes: Neuron death, and lack of blood flow