The Nervous System

A network of neurons that sends, receives and modulates neural impulses between different body parts.

The nervous system is divided into two parts:

1. The Central Nervous System, which consists of the brain and the spinal cord,
2. The Peripheral Nervous System, which connects the central nervous system to the rest
of the body.

The Peripheral Nervous System

Functional divisions:
 Somatic nervous system
 Autonomic nervous system; sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric divisions

Cells of the nervous system

Two basic types of cells are present in the nervous system;

1. Neurons
2. Glial cells

Neurons
Neurons, or nerve cell, are the main structural and functional units of the nervous system.
Every neuron consists of a body (soma) and a number of processes (neurites).

they connect neurons with each other and with other body cells, enabling the flow of neural
impulses. There are two types of neural processes that differ in structure and function;

1. Axons are long and conduct impulses away from the neuronal body.
2. Dendrites are short and act to receive impulses from other neurons, conducting the
electrical signal towards the nerve cell body.

Every neuron has a single axon.

There are two types of neurons, named according to whether they send an electrical signal
towards or away from the CNS;

1. Efferent neurons (motor or descending) send neural impulses from the CNS to the
peripheral tissues, instructing them how to function.
2. Afferent neurons (sensory or ascending) conduct impulses from the peripheral tissues
to the CNS. These impulses contain sensory information, describing the tissue's
environment.

The site where an axon connects to another cell to pass the neural impulse is called a synapse.

Glial cells
Glial cells, also called neuroglia or simply glia, are smaller non-excitatory cells that act to
support neurons. They do not propagate action potentials. Instead, they myelinate neurons,
maintain homeostatic balance, provide structural support, protection and nutrition for neurons
throughout the nervous system.

This set of functions is provided for by four different types of glial cells;

1. Myelinating glia produce the axon-insulating myelin sheath. These are called
oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS. Remember these easily with
the mnemonic "COPS" (Central - Oligodendrocytes; Peripheral - Schwann)
2. Astrocytes (CNS) and satellite glial cells (PNS) both share the function of supporting and
protecting neurons.
3. Other two glial cell types are found in CNS exclusively; microglia are the phagocytes of
the CNS and ependymal cells which line the ventricular system of the CNS. The PNS
doesn’t have a glial equivalent to microglia as the phagocytic role is performed by
macrophages.

Most axons are wrapped by a white insulating substance called the myelin sheath, produced by
oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. Myelin encloses an axon segmentally, leaving
unmyelinated gaps between the segments called the nodes of Ranvier. The neural impulses
propagate through the Ranvier nodes only, skipping the myelin sheath. This significantly
increases the speed of neural impulse propagation.

White and gray matter

The white color of myelinated axons is distinguished from the gray colored neuronal bodies and
dendrites.
Based on this, nervous tissue is divided into white matter and gray matter, both of which has a
specific distribution;

1. White matter comprises the outermost layer of the spinal cord and the inner part of the
brain.
2. Gray matter is located in the central part of the spinal cord, outermost layer of the brain
(cerebral cortex), and in several subcortical nuclei of the brain deep to the cerebral
cortex.

Synapse
In the central nervous system, a synapse is a small gap at the end of a neuron that allows a
signal to pass from one neuron to the next. Synapses are found where nerve cells connect with
other nerve cells.

Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit a signal from a neuron across the
synapse to a target cell
neurotransmitters (acetylcholine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Pre-Synaptic
the presynaptic neuron is the neuron before the synapse, this neuron is delivering the
"message" across the synapse to the postsynaptic neuron.
presynaptic neuron is a neuron (nerve cell) that fires the neurotransmitter as a result of an
action potential entering its axon terminal.

Synaptic Cleft
A synaptic cleft is a space that separates two neurons. It forms a junction between two or more
neurons and helps nerve impulse pass from one neuron to the other.

Post Synaptic
The postsynaptic neuron is the "receiver" of the neurotransmitter "message".

Astrocyte Cell *
Astrocytes are a sub-type of glial cells in the central nervous system. They are also known as
astrocytic glial cells. Star-shaped, their many processes envelop synapses made by neurons.
Oligodendrocytes *
Oligodendrocytes are a type of large glial cell found in the central nervous system. Supporting
function in nerve impulses. Around Nerve Cells and smaller then schwan cell

Schwan Cells
Schwann cells are a type of glial cells of the peripheral nervous system that help form the
myelin sheath around the nerve fibers. Myelin sheath of the neuron. A schwann cell envelops
and rotates around the axon forming myelin sheath, now axon is myelinated.

Monocytes
Monocytes are a critical component of the innate immune system. They are the source of many
other vital elements of the immune system, such as macrophages and dendritic cells.
Monocytes play a role in both the inflammatory and anti-inflammatory processes that take
place during an immune response

Microglia *
Microglia can also protect the CNS by promoting neurogenesis, clearing debris, and suppressing
inflammation in diseases such as stroke, autism, and Alzheimer's.

Neuroglia
Glia, also called glial cells or neuroglia, are non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system
(brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system that do not produce electrical
impulses. They maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for
neurons.

Brain & Spinal Cord Covering

The meninges refer to the membranous coverings of the brain and spinal cord. There are three
layers of meninges, known as the dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater.

These coverings have two major functions:

Provide a supportive framework for the cerebral and cranial vasculature.

1. Dura Mater
The dura mater is the outermost layer of the meninges, lying directly underneath the bones of
the skull and vertebral column. It is thick, tough and inextensible.

the dura contains two connective tissue sheets:

  Periosteal layer – lines the inner surface of the bones of the cranium.
 Meningeal layer – deep to the periosteal layer inside the cranial cavity. It is the only
layer present in the vertebral column.

2. Arachnoid Mater
The arachnoid mater is the middle layer of the meninges, lying directly underneath the dura
mater. It consists of layers of connective tissue, is avascular, and does not receive any
innervation.

arachnoid is a space known as the sub-arachnoid space. It contains cerebrospinal fluid, which
acts to cushion the brain

3. Pia Mater
The pia mater is located underneath the sub-arachnoid space. It is very thin, and tightly
adhered to the surface of the brain and spinal cord. It is the only covering to follow the
contours of the brain (the gyri and fissures).

Sinuses
An empty space between where fluid can enter.

Falx Cerebri

Brain