Nervous tissue
Main Function: (SIM)
1. Sensory - a sense organ (e.g. eyes, nose,
ears, tongue and skin) picks up a stimulus
(something that causes a reaction)
2. Integration - nerves communicate information
to the brain, and the brain processes it
3. Motor - the brain uses the processed
information to decide how to respond to the
stimulus. It sends these instructions to the right
group of muscles to activate the appropriate
response
2 Major Parts:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) - consists of
the brain and spinal cord.
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - consist of
cranial and spinal nerves.
Protective Layers of Central Nervous System
- Nervous tissue is very delicate and need to be
protected by: (BonCoW)
1. Bone (skull)
2. Connective tissue layers (meningeal layers)
3. Watery cerebrospinal fluid
Meningeal Layer: (DAP)
1. Dura Mater- a tough, strong and thick layer of
dense connective tissue. *dense irregular
2. Arachnoid Mater- deep to Dura mater and
more delicate connective tissue.
3. Pia Mater- layer contains blood vessels that
attaches directly to the surface of brain and spinal
cord.
Cerebrospinal Fluid
- It delivers nutrients and eliminates waste
products from the brain and spinal column. It is
important for homeostasis of your brain, which
means regulating its temperature that keeps the
brain operating as well as possible.
Neurons
- The structural and functional cells of nervous
tissue which consists of soma or cell body,
dendrites and axons.
Types of Neurons
1. Multipolar neuron is a type of neuron that
possesses a single axon and many dendrites and
majority of neurons in the central nervous system.
2. Bipolar neuron or bipolar cell is a type of
neuron which has two extensions (one axon and
one dendrite). Many bipolar cells are specialized
sensory neurons for the transmission of sense.
3. Unipolar cell are also sensory. True
unipolar cells are only found in invertebrate
animals, so the unipolar cells in humans are more
appropriately called “pseudo-unipolar” cells.
Myelin sheath and Myelination of Axon
-Myelin is an insulating layer, or sheath that
forms around nerves, including those in the brain
and spinal cord. It is made up of protein and fatty
substances. This myelin sheath allows electrical
impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along
the nerve cells. If myelin is damaged, these
impulses slow down.
Schwann cell
- also called neurilemma cell, which produce
the myelin sheath around neuronal axons.
Supporting cells in the CNS: Neuroglia
Neuroglia (glial cells)
-they provide support for neurons and they
surround the neurons, axon and dendrites.
Types of Neuroglia: (AsOlEpMi)
1. Astrocytes- the most common type of glial cell
in the central nervous system. (FoReBra)
-Forming the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The
BBB is like a strict security system, only letting in
substances that are supposed to be in your brain
while keeping out things that could be harmful.
-Regulating blood flow to the brain. For your
brain to process information properly, it needs a
certain amount of blood going to all of its different
regions.
-Brain energy metabolism and homeostasis. The White matter and grey/gray matter
They regulate metabolism in the brain by storing
glucose from the blood and provide this as fuel for
neurons. This is one of the most important roles of
astrocytes.
2. Oligodendrocytes- provide stability and carry
energy from blood cells to the axons.
3. Ependymal cells- they create cerebrospinal
fluid.
4. Microglia- as their name suggests, microglia
are tiny glial cells. They act as the brain's own
dedicated immune system. Microglia is alert to Gray matter- it is consists of neurons, their
signs of injury and disease. When they detect it, dendrites, and the supportive cells called neuroglia.
they charge in and take care of the problem— This region represents the site of connection or
whether it means clearing away dead cells or synapses between neurons and dendrites. Gray
getting rid of a toxin or pathogen. matter covers the surface of the brain (cerebrum)
and cerebellum.
White matter- it is consists primarily of myelinated
axons, some unmyelinated axons, and the
supportive neuroglial oligodendrocytes.
Myelin speeds up the signals between the cells,
enabling the brain cells to quickly send and receive
messages.

Spinal cord

-Thorasic region of spinal cord contains anterior, posterior and lateral gray horns.
-Lateral horns contain motor neurons.
-Anterior horns of gray matter contains motor neurons.
-Axons from anterior horns form anterior roots of spinal cord.
-Posterior columns of white matter contain fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus.
-Gray matter inside the spinal cord is H- shaped.
-Gray commissure connects two sides of gray matter and contains central canal.

Neurons, Axon, and Dendrites (SeMoAs)

Neurons are classified as afferent (sensory), efferent (motor), or interneurons.
1. Sensory or afferent neurons – transmit impulses from the sensory peripheral receptors to CNS
2. Motor or efferent neurons – Carry impulses away from CNS to peripheral organs
3. Association or Interneurons- present only in the CNS and transmit impulses across the neurons of CNS

Neurons- are highly specialized for irritability, conductivity, and synthesis for neuroactive substances
such as neurotransmitter (releases during nerve stimulus) and nuerohormones.

Axon- arises from the funnel-shaped region of the cell body called the axon hillock.
-axons also transport chemical substances or neurotransmitters.

Myelinated axon – conducts impulses at a much faster rate (velocity) than unmyelinated of the same
size

Dendrites – are short, often highly branching cytoplasmic extensions that are tapered from their bases at
neuron cell
-receive and integrate information from dendrites, neurons, or axons.
 The large, multipolar motor neurons of the CNS have a large central nucleus, a prominent nucleolus
and several radiating cell processes, the dendrites. A single, thin axon arises from a cone-shaped,
clear area of the neuron; this is the axon hillock.
 The axons that leave the motor neurons are thinner and much longer than the thicker but shorter
dendrites.
 The perikaryon of the neuron is characterized by numerous clumps of coarse granules (basophilic
masses)

Nissl bodies -represent the granular endoplasmic reticulum of the neuron. When the plane of section
misses the nucleus only the dark-staining Nissl bodies are seen in the perikaryon of the neuron. The
Nissl bodies extend into the dendrites but not into the axon hillock or into the axon.
Nucleolus- is prominent, dense, and stains dark.
Neuroglia -nonneural cells of the central nervous system; they provide the structural and metabolic
support for the neurons.

This section of the anterior horn of the spinal cord was prepared by silver impregnation (Cajal’s
method) to demonstrate the distribution of neurofibrils in both the gray matter and motor neurons.
Fine neurofibrils -are distributed throughout the perikaryon and dendrites of the motor neurons.
Because of the silver impregnation technique, axons and additional details of the motor neurons are not
visible.
Nuclei of the motor neurons -appear yellow stained and their nucleoli dark stained. Some motor
neurons show only a nucleus without a nucleolus, whereas others only show peripheral cytoplasm
without a nucleus.
There are also many neurofibrils in the gray matter. Some of these neurofibrils belong to the axons of
anterior horn neurons or the adjacent neuroglia, whose nuclei are visible throughout the gray matter.
(MEExIIM)
Molecular layer (I)- most superficial. Overlying and covering the molecular cell layer (I) is the delicate
connective tissue of the brain, the pia mater. The peripheral portion of molecular layer (I) is composed
predominantly of neuroglial cells and horizontal cells of Cajal. Their axons contribute to the horizontal
fibers that are seen in the molecular layer (I).
External granular layer (II) -contains mainly different types of neuroglial cells and small pyramidal cells.
Note that the pyramidal cells get progressively larger in successively deeper layers of the cortex. The
apical dendrites of the pyramidal cells are directed toward the periphery of the cortex, whereas their
axons extend from the cell bases.
External pyramidal layer (III)- medium-sized pyramidal cells predominate.
Internal granular layer (IV)- is a thin layer and contains mainly small granule cells some pyramidal cells,
and different neuroglia that form numerous complex connections with the pyramidal cells.
Internal pyramidal layer (V)-contains numerous neuroglial cells and the largest pyramidal cells
especially in the motor area of the cerebral cortex.
Multiform layer (VI) – deepest layer and adjacent to the white matter of the cerebral cortex. Contains
intermixed cells of varying shapes and sizes, such as the fusiform cells, granule cells, stellate cells, and
cells of Martinotti. Bundles of axons enter and leave the white matter.
Cerebellar cortex exhibits numerous deeply convoluted folds called cerebellar folia (singular, folium)
separated by sulci.
Cerebellar folia are covered by the thin connective tissue, the pia mater that follows the surface of each
folium into the adjacent sulci. The detachment of the pia mater from the cerebellar cortex is an artifact
caused by tissue fixation and preparation.
Cerebellum consists of an outer gray matter or cortex and an inner white matter.
Three distinct cell layers can be distinguished in the cerebellar cortex: an outer molecular layer with
relatively fewer and smaller neuronal cell bodies and many fibers that extend parallel to the length of the
folium; a central or middle Purkinje cell layer; and an inner granular layer with numerous small neurons
that exhibit intensely stained nuclei.
Purkinje cells are pyriform or pyramidal in shape with ramified dendrites that extend into the molecular
layer.

Fibrous Astrocytes of the Brain

A section of the brain was prepared by Cajal’s method to demonstrate the supportive neuroglial cells
called astrocytes.
Fibrous astrocytes- exhibit a small cell body, a large oval nucleus, and a dark-stained nucleolus.
Extending from the cell body are long, thin, and smooth radiating processes that are found between the
neurons and blood vessels.
Perivascular fibrous astrocyte- surrounds a capillary with red blood cells (erythrocytes).
From other fibrous astrocytes, the long processes extend to and terminate on the capillary as
perivascular end feet.
This section of the brain was also prepared with Cajal’s method to show the supportive neuroglial
cells called oligodendrocytes. In comparison to a fibrous astrocyte, the oligodendrocytes are smaller
and exhibit few, thin, short processes without excessive branching.
Oligodendrocytes are found in both the gray and white matter of the CNS.
In the white matter, the oligodendrocytes form myelin sheaths around numerous axons and are
analogous to the Schwann cells that myelinate individual axons in the nerves of the PNS.

Microglia of the Brain

This section of the brain was prepared with Hortega’s method to show the smallest neuroglial cells
called microglia. The microglia varies in shape and often exhibit irregular contours, and the small, deeply
stained nucleus almost fills the entire cell. The cell processes of the microglia are few, short, and
slender. Both the cell body and the processes of microglia are covered with small spines. Two neurons
and a capillary with red blood cells (erythrocytes) provide a size comparison with the microglia.
Microglia is found in both the white and gray matter of the CNS, and is the main phagocytes of the
CNS.

The peripheral nervous system (NeSuNA) consists of neurons, supportive cells, nerves, and axons
that are located outside of the central nervous system. These include cranial nerves from the brain and
spinal nerves from the spinal cord along with their associated ganglia. Ganglia are small accumulations
of neurons and supportive glial cells surrounded by a connective tissue capsule. The nerves of the PNS
contain both sensory and motor axons. These axons transmit information between the peripheral organs
and the CNS. The neurons of the peripheral nerves are located either within the CNS or outside of the
CNS in different ganglia.
Connective Tissue Layers in the PNS
A peripheral nerve is composed of numerous axons of various sizes that are surrounded by several
layers of connective tissue, which partition the nerve into several nerve (axon) bundles or fascicles. The
outermost connective tissue layer is the strong sheath epineurium that binds all fascicles together. It
consists of dense irregular connective tissue that completely surrounds the peripheral nerve. A thinner
connective tissue layer called the perineurium extends into the nerve and surrounds one or more
individual nerve fascicles. Within each fascicle are individual axons and their supporting cells, the
Schwann cells. Each myelinated axon or a cluster of unmyelinated axons associated with a Schwann
cell is surrounded by a loose vascular connective tissue layer of thin reticular fibers, called the
endoneurium.

Peripheral Nerves and Blood Vessels

Several bundles of nerve axons (fibers) or nerve fascicles and accompanying blood vessels have
been sectioned in the transverse plane. Each nerve fascicle is surrounded by a sheath of connective
tissue perineurium that merges with surrounding interfascicular connective tissue. Delicate
connective tissue strands from the perineurium surround individual nerve axons (fibers) in a fascicle and
form the innermost layer endoneurium.
Numerous nuclei are seen between individual nerve axons (fibers) in the nerve fascicles. Most of
these are the nuclei of Schwann cells. Schwann cells surround and myelinate the axons. The myelin
sheaths that surrounded the tiny axons are seen as empty spaces because of the chemicals used in
preparation of the tissue. Other nuclei in the nerve fascicles are the fibrocytes of the endoneurium.
The arterial blood vessels in the interfascicular connective tissue send branches into each nerve
fascicle where they branch into capillaries in the endoneurium. Different size arterioles and venules are
found in the interfascicular connective tissue that surrounds the nerve fascicles. In the larger arteriole are
visible blood cells, an internal elastic membrane (8), and a muscular tunica media. Different size adipose
cells are also present in the interfascicular connective tissue.

Myelinated Nerve Fibers

Schwann cells surround the axons in peripheral nerves and form a myelin sheath. To illustrate the
myelin sheath, nerve fibers are fixed with osmic acid; this preparation stains the lipid in the myelin sheath
black. In this illustration, a portion of the peripheral nerve has been prepared in a longitudinal section and
in a cross section.
In the longitudinal section, the myelin sheath appears as a thick, black band surrounding a lighter,
central axon. At intervals of a few millimeters, the myelin sheath exhibits discontinuity between adjacent
Schwann cells. These regions of discontinuity represent the nodes of Ranvier.
 A group of nerve fibers or fascicle is also illustrated. Each fascicle is surrounded by a light- appearing
connective tissue layer, called the perineurium. In turn, each individual nerve fiber or axon is surrounded
by a thin layer of connective tissue, called the endoneurium. In the transverse plane, different diameters
of myelinated axons are seen. The myelin sheath appears as a thick, black ring around the light,
unstained axon, which in most fibers is seen in the center. The connective tissue surrounding individual
nerve fibers or the fascicle exhibits a rich supply of blood vessels of different sizes.

Diseases Associated in CNS (EnMeMuPa)

Encephalitis - inflammation of the brain caused by a virus and less often by bacteria or other agents
Meningitis - inflammation of meninges caused by viral or bacterial infection
Multiple sclerosis - autoimmune condition, may be initiated by viral infection; inflammation in brain and
spinal cord with demyelination and sclerotic sheaths results in poor conduction of action potentials
Parkinson disease- caused by a lesion in basal nuclei; characterized by muscular rigidity, resting
tremor, general lack of movement, and a slow, shuffling gait

Sciatic Nerve Fascicle

 The sciatic nerve serves a vital role in
connecting the spinal cord with the skin and
muscles of the thigh, leg, and foot
 The sciatic nerve is the longest and widest
nerve in the human body. It runs from the
lower back, through the buttocks, and down
the legs, ending just below the knee. This
nerve controls several muscles in the lower
legs and supplies sensation to the skin of Endoneurium
the foot and the majority of the lower leg.
 Every person has 2 sciatic nerves, the right
and left nerves—supplying each lower limb.
 Partial damage to the nerve may
demonstrate weakness of knee flexion
(bending), weakness of foot movements,
difficulty bending the foot inward
(inversion), or bending the foot down
(plantar flexion)
 A group of muscle fibers is ―bundled‖ as a unit
within the whole muscle is called a fascicle.
 A small bundle of nerve fibers enclosed by
the Perineurium.
 Fascicle arrangement is correlated to the
force generated by a muscle and affects the
muscle's range of motion.
 It is a connective tissue that wraps each
individual muscle fibre.
 A layer of connective tissue that surrounds
axons.
 Endoneurium contains collagen
fibers, fibroblasts, capillaries, and a few mast
cells and macrophages. Collagen fibers are
permeable and concentrated in a zone
beneath the perineurium and around nerve
fibers and blood vessels.
Perineurium Nodes of Ranvier and Axons
o In order for the signal to propagate through the
 It is a connective tissue that wraps bundles of neuron, there must be breaks in the myelin
muscle fibers – the fasicles. coating, these breaks are called nodes of
 The perineurium consists of concentric layers of Ranvier
flattened cells separated by layers of collagen. o Nodes of Ranvier are the spaces between the
 The number of perineurial cell layers depends myelin coating on the neuron's axon. Much like
on the size of the fascicle. Perineurial cells the plastic coating on a wire needs to be clear to
have a basal lamina on each side that may be connect to an appliance and supply power, there
considerably dense. must be breaks in the myelin to conduct electricity
in neurons.
Epineurium o Electricity travels quickly through the axon
 It is a connective tissue that wraps the whole wrapped in myelin. At the nodes of Ranvier,
muscle. electricity can be conducted within the cell's
 The outermost layer of dense, irregular environment, and the electrical signal will be
connective tissue surrounding a peripheral propagated down the axon.
nerve.
 The amount of epineurial tissue varies along a The Dorsal Root Ganglion
nerve and is more abundant around joints. The The dorsal root ganglion contains the cell bodies
thickness of the epineurium varies in different of sensory neurons that bring information from the
nerves and in different locations of the same
periphery to the spinal cord. The neurons comprising
nerve.
the dorsal root ganglion are of the pseudo-
Schwann Cell unipolar type, meaning they have a cell body (soma)
 The Schwann cell plays a vital role in with two branches that act as a single axon, often
maintaining the peripheral nervous system referred to as a distal process and a proximal
(PNS). process.
 Schwann cells are derived from neural crest
cells, and come in two types either myelinating Alzheimer's disease
or non-myelinating Schwann cells. Both play a Mental deterioration or dementia usually affects
pivotal role in the maintenance and older people; involves loss of neurons in cerebral
regeneration of axons of the neurons in the cortex.
PNS.
Symptoms: General intellectual deficiency, memory
Two types of Schwann Cell: loss, short attention span, moodiness, disorientation
o A myelinated neuron is a neuron whose axon and irritability. (GeMeMoDI)
is covered by the myelin sheath (myelin means
white). The conduction of nerve impulse is Peripheral Nervous System Disorders
faster in this neuron than non-myelinated
neuron due to the presence of myelin sheath o Herpes is a family of diseases characterized by
over the axon. Myelin sheath avoids the loss of skin lesions due to herpes viruses in sensory
impulse during conduction. ganglia; different viruses cause oral lesions (cold
o Non-myelinated neuron is the neuron whose sores), sexually transmitted disease with
axon is not covered by the myelin sheath. The lesions on genitalia, or chickenpox in children.
conduction of nerve impulse in this neuron is o Poliomyelitis is viral infection of the CNS;
slow than myelinated neuron due to damaged somatic neurons, leaving muscles
the absence of myelin sheath. There are more without innervation and leads to paralysis and
chances of loss of impulse during conduction. atrophy.
o Myasthenia gravis is caused by an error in the
Saltatory conduction describes the way an transmission of nerve impulses to muscles. It
electrical impulse skips from node to node down occurs when normal communication between the
the full length of an axon, speeding the arrival of nerve and muscle is interrupted at the
the impulse at the nerve terminal in comparison neuromuscular junction—the place where
with the slower continuous progression of nerve cells connect with the muscles they control
depolarization spreading down an unmyelinated
axon.