The nervous system is divided into:

Central nervous system (CNS) & peripheral nervous

system (PNS). CNS includes the brain & the spinal cord.
The PNS include neurons, peripheral nerves, ganglia &
nerve endings. The main function of the CNS is to receive
sensory stimuli from various parts of the body & analyze
these information & respond by sending signals that are
transmitted along the peripheral nerves to initiate muscular,
secretory or other activities of the body.
Also’ CNS has endogenous neural activity that regulates the
behavior.
the brain is formed of cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem
(medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain).

THE NEURON

The NS is made up of exitable cells called neurons and

supporting cells called neuroglia.The neuron is the structural
and functional unit of the N S. It consists of a cell body
(soma or perikaryon) with its radiating processes
(dendrites & axon).The dendrites recevie signals from other
neurons but the axon is capable of generating a nerve
impulse & conducting it for long distance to stimulate other
neuron (s). As the axon reaches its end it gives terminal
arborization. Each one of this arborization ends in small
expansion (terminal button). This terminal button makes
contact with another neuron by synapse.

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS:
According to the number of the processes:
1- Unipolar neurons: e.g. 5 th cranial nerve nucleus.
(nucleus in the CNS means group of neurons very close to

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 each other and perform the same function)
2- Pseudo-unipolar neurons: e.g. cells of the spinal
ganglion (dorsal root ganglion). The neuron has single
process. Close to the perikaryon, this process divides into
two branches like letter T.
3- Bipolar neurons: These cells have two processes (one
axon & the other is a dendrite) e.g. bipolar cells of the retina
and olfactory mucosa.
4- Multipolar neurons:These cells have many
processes.e.g. cells of the cerebral cortex. These processes
are single axon and multiple denderites.

Functionally : neurons are classified into:

1- Motor neurons: to muscle or glands.
2- Sensory neurons: receive sensory stimuli.
3- Inter- neurons: connect neurons of CNS together.

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 THE STRUCTURE OF THE NEURON
I) The Soma (perikaryon or cyton):

The nucleus is large, rounded, central and vesicular

(what are the features of vesicular nucleus?).
The cytoplasm contains:
❖ cell organelles:
Nissl bodies are clumps of basophilic material of
RER. Nissl bodies also present in the dendrites but
not in the axon. SER present in perikaryon,
dendrites & axon. Golgi complex is prominent &
perinuclear. It is surrounded by neumerous small
neurovesicles that contain the neurotransmitter.
Mitochondia present in the perikaryon, dendrites &
axon. Lysosomes present in small number in the
perikaryon.
❖ Cell inclusions :
Cell inclusions are not common in neurons except
lipofuscin pigment which is an end product that
increases with age. Some neurons contain melanin
as neurons of substantia nigra of midbrain .
❖ Neurofibrils:
They are seen in the perikaryon, axon & dendrites.
These neurofibrils are formed of neurofilaments.
These neurofilaments are intermediate filaments.
❖ There are also microtubules.
II) Processes
Denderites :
Denderites are numerous, short branching processes.
Their extensive branching greatly increase the
neuronal surface area avalible for receiving signals
from another neurons. This branching pattern depends
on the type of the neuron. The denderites give irregular
lateral branches (spines or throns). These spines are
sites of synaptic contact & occupy concavities on the
surface of another neuron. The initial portion of the
dendrites contain organelles resemble those of the

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 perikaryon except for absence of Golgi body &
lysosomes.
AXON:
It arises from a conical extention of the soma (axon
hillok). The axon is single slender, long process that
has the same diameter throughout its length. It
contains the axoplasm which lacks Nissel bodies but
contains SER mitochondria, neurofibrils, and
microtubules. The axon is surrounded with axolemma.
In addition to conduction of nerve impulse, the axon is
engaged in axonal transport. Organelles & vesicles
move down along the axon to reach the axon terminal.
The microtubules of the axon are polarized with plus
end towards the axon terminal & their minus end
towards the soma. The protein (kinesin) is the vehicle
for transportion of the vesicles from the perikaryon
towards the plus end. One end of kinesin protein
attaches to the vesicle & the other end binds a specific
site on the microtubules resulting in the movement of
the vesicles from up down along the axon.

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 SYNAPSE

It is a functional contact between two neurons. It is a

special type of cell junctions that allows direct
communication between neurons. At the synapse, chemical
or electrical signals pass from one neuron to another or to an
effector cell. According to this, there are two types of
synapses ; chemical and electrical. At chemical synapses,
chemical signals are in the form of chemical substance is
released.This substance may be neurotransmitters or
neuromedulators. The neurotransmitters act locally &
rapidly but the neuromedulators exert their effect on far
away from target site. It reaches to that site by diffusion
through extra cellular fluid or be transported through the
blood. So. They have slower effects.

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 Synapses are many types (according to the parts of the
neurons come in contact together); axo-dendritic, axo-
somatic & axo-axonic.

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 In PNS, the synaptic contact of motor neuron is usually with
effector (muscle or gland). The neurotransmitters include
acetylcholine, dopamine, noradrenaline & serotonin. At the
synapse, the presynaptic & postsynaptic membranes are
parallel & separated by synaptic cleft. The terminal button is
rich in mitochondria, microtubules, neurofilbrils &
neurosecretory vesicles. These vesicles contain beside the
neurotransmitter proteins named Synaptophysin &
Chromogranins. These proteins are involved in packaging
of the transmitter. The vesicles release their transmitters by
exocytosis. The membranes of the vesicles are re-
endocytosed by the cell. The released transmitter binds to
specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. There are
three possible effects for binding of the transmitter with the
receptors: depolarization, hyperpolarization or altered
(change) cell sensitivity. In this way synapses may be
exitatory, inhibitory or modulatory respectivelly. Most
synapses use chemical messengers (chemical synapses).
Electric synapses are fewer in number and they transmit
ionic signals through synaptic cleft.

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 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The main components are the peripheral nerves, ganglion

and nerve endings. The peripheral nerves e.g. siatic nerve
and median nerve are formed of bundles of nerve fibers
(axons) surrounded by a series of connective tissue.

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 connective tissue around the nerve fibers

A collection of nerve fibers is called nerve bundle.

Collection of bundles is called a nerve trunk. The whole trunk
is covered by C.T. called epineurium. Each bundle is
surrounded by C. T. called perineurium. Individual nerve
fibers are surrounded by endoneurium.

Components of the peripheral nervous system

1- NERVE FIBER:
It consists of an axon enveloped by a special sheath
(myelin sheath) derived from surrounding cells called
Schwann cells.
Groups of myelinated nerve fibers constitute the tracts of the
CNS & peripheral nerves, in the PNS.
A tract: is a group of myelinated nerve fibers (axons) . This
group has the same origin, the same termination, the same
direction and carry the same kind of impulse.

TYPES OF NERVE FIBERS:

1- unmyelinated (naked) N. F. they present in the gray

matter of the CNS.These fibers have neither myelin nor
Schwann cells.
2- N .F. covered by myelin sheath only as tracts of the
white matter of the CNS and the optic nerve .
3- myelinated N.F. they present in the somatic nerves
outside the spinal cord. These fibers have both myelin and
Schwann cells.
4- N.F. covered by Schwann cells only as postganglionic
sympathetic nerve fibers.

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 MYELIN SHEATH

The myelin sheath has two functions: insulation of the

nerve impulse and decreases the energy consumption by the
axon. The myelin sheath is formed by oligodendrocytes in
the CNS and by Schwann cells in the PNS. One Schwann
cell myelinates only one axon, while single oligodendrocyte
can myelinate several adjacent axons. Myelin sheath is not
continuous along the axon. The small bare areas of the axon
are termed nodes of Ranvier. These nodes are of
physiological importance.

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 Steps of Myelin Sheath Formation

The axon (nerve fiber) occupies a deep recess

(concavity=groove) on the surface of Schwann cell. As the
axon goes deeper inside this groove, the borders of the
recess surrounding the axon become long and come in
contact with each other & the opposed membranes elongate
form mesaxon. This mesaxon becomes longer and longer
then it spirally turned around the axon. As the mesaxon
tightens, the cytoplasm between the turns is completely
excluded.The layers of the plasmalemma of the turns come
in contact & fuse forming major dense lines. The myelin
sheath is formed of lipids and proteins. Lipids include
cholesterol, phospholipid and glycolipids. This myelin sheath
around the axon is interrupted by Lantermann clefts. These
clefts actually are sites in which small amount of Schwann
cell cytoplasm persists between the two layers of the major
dense lines. At node of Ranvier, the axon is covered only by
the cytoplasm of Schwann cells. These nodes are the gates
for ions. Myelin sheath can be stained by osmic acid.

Ganglion

Nerve ganglion is capsulated structure i.e. it has C.T.

capsule. It is formed of groups of nerve cells and glial cells.
They are ovoid in shape. Ganglia serve as relay station for

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 the nerve impulse. The nerve fiber enters the ganglion is
called preganglionic fiber while that exits is called
postganglionic fiber. According to the direction of nerve
impulse, we have two types of ganglia: sensory ganglion
(send the impulse towards CNS) & autonomic ganglion
(receive the impulse from CNS).

A) Sensory Ganglion:

They receive afferent impulses that go to the CNS. There

are two types of sensory ganglia; cranial ganglia (associated
with cranial nerves) and spinal ganglia (associated with spinal
nerves).The spinal ganglia also called (dorsal root ganglion)
have thick C. T. capsule . Each ganglion is composed of large
variable sized nerve cells with prominent Nissl bodies and
surrounded by abundant supporting glial cells called satellite
cells. The neurons of these ganglion are pseudounipolar
neurons. The cell bodies are separated by thick myelinated N.F.
The neurons are arranged in groups or rows. The ganglion has
few blood vessels.

B) Autonomic Ganglion:
It appears as thickening in the autonomic nerves. Some of
them are located within certain organs (called intra mural
ganglia) as (in the digestive tube). This intra mural ganglion is
devoid of capsule & the nerve cells are supported by the stroma

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of the organ in which they are found. These autonomic ganglia
are either sympathetic or parasympathetic. Autonomic
ganglia have multipolar neurons which are small and nearly
equal in size and surrounded by few number of satellite cells.
They are covered by thin C. T. capsule. They are rich in blood
vessels. The neurons are separated by thin unmyelinated nerve
fibers.

NEUROGLIA

The supporting non excitable cells of the CNS that are

found among neurons are called neuroglia (nerve glue).

TYPES Of Neuroglia
a) Neuroglia Proper

1) Astrocytes: They are star shaped cells due to their

multiple radiating processes. These cells have bundles of
intermediate filaments (neurofilaments) that reinforce their
structural shape. These filaments are composed of glial
fibrillary acid protein which is unique to astrocytes.They are
the largest and most numerous neuroglial cells. Astrocytes
with few long branching processes are called fiberous
astrocytes & are located in the white matter of CNS.
Protoplasmic astrocytes that have short thick multiple
processes with many branches are found in the grey matter

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 of CNS. These cells have glycogen granules. Protopasmic
astrocytes on the surface of the brain and spinal cord send
processes towards pia mater to terminate as subpial feet.
The subpial feet of adjacent protoplasmic astrocytes join to
form glial limiting membrane. This membrane is relatively
impermeable barrier around CNS.
❖ Atrocytes have expanded end-feet (perivascular feet) that
are joined to endothelial cells of blood capillaries. Through
these end feet, astrocytes transfere O2, ions and
molecules like glucose from blood to the neurons and CO2
plus waste products in the opposite direction.
❖ Astrocytes (especially the fiberous type) proliferate to
form scar tissue when part of the CNS is damaged as
in brain abcess.
❖ Astrocytes have many types of surface receptors.
These receptors allow astrocytes to respond to several
stimuli to perform their specific function.
❖ Astrocytes clean the extra-cellular space arround
neurons from k+ions, glutamate and GABA that
accumulate as by-products of neuronal activity. Thus
they create micro-environment suitable for neuronal
function.
❖ They contain glycogen granules from which glucose is
released though glycolysis. This glucose is the only
source of energy for neurons.
❖ Astrocytes form what is called blood brain
barrier.This barrier protects neurons from any
circulating micro-organism and harmful material.

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 2) Microglia or Mesoglia (brain macrophages):
Microglia present in both grey & white matter. They are
small elongated cells with short irregular processes. The
nucleus is dense , elongated and central. They represent the
mononuclear phagocytic system in the nervous tissue. When
activated, microglia retract (withdraw) their processes &
assume the morphology of macrophages. They act as
phagocytic and antigen-presenting cells. These microglia
increase in number during inflammation of the CNS and in
AIDS. These cells are of mesodermal origin so they are
called mesoglia.

3) Oligodendrocytes:
Small cells with few processes. The processes are not
highly branched. The nucleus is small, rounded & deeply
stained. The cytoplasm is rich in RER, mitochondria and
microtubules. These cells present in both grey & white
matter. There are two types of oligodendrocytes:
intrfascicular (present in white matter) & satellite (present
in the grey matter i.e in the ganglion). Oligodendrocytes
produce myelin sheath in the CNS. One oligodendrocyte can
myelinate many axons.

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 b) Other Neuroglia
1) Ependymal Cells:
They are low columnar or high cuboidal cells lining brain
ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord. In some
areas, these cells are ciliated. The unique character of these
ependymal cells that they lack basal lamina. Ependymal
cells secrete CSF.The cilia facilitate the movement of CSF.
2) Schwann Cells:
They present around axons in the PNS. These cells
produce myelin sheath in the PNS.
3) Tanacytes:
They are supporting cells present in the thalamus.
4) Satellite cells:
They are supporting cells present around nerve cells in
the ganglia.
FUNCTIONS:
1- Provide mechanical support to neurons.
2- Maintain a suitable micro-environment for neuronal activity
(astrocytes).
3- Supply neurons with their nutrients (astrocytes).
4- Form myelin sheath in the CNS (oligodendrocytes). In the
PNS Schwann cells form myelin sheath.
5- Act as phagocytic cells (microglia).

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 DEGENERATION & REGENERATION
If the trauma is directed towords the soma itself, there is
permanent loss of the neuron. The peripheral nerve fibers
can regenerate if their cell bodies are not destroyed i.e. if the
trauma is directed towords the nerve fiber. The neuron that is
functionally connected to a dead neuron does not die, except
if it has only one link with that dead neuron,in this case it
undergoes transneuronal degeneration. When an axon is
transected, degenerative changes take place in (soma and
axon), followed by repair (regeneration).

Degeneration
During degeneration:
The soma of the neuron: shows the following degenerative
changes:
Mitochondria are the first organelles to degenerate (why?).
chromatolysis: breaking down then, disapperance of Nissl’s
bodies, decrease cytoplasmic basophilia (why?), increase in the
volume of soma, loss of denderities (why?). Then, the nucleus
becomes small, dark & peripherally situated (pyknosis).
The axon:
a- The proximal axonal segment (the part near the soma):
degenerates till the first node of Ranvier (retrograde
degeneration).
b- The distal axonal segment (the part away from the soma):
shows (Wallerian degeneration) that affects the whole
segment.
c- At the site of the trauma: traumatic degeneration occurs. It
resembles the other two types of degeneration but it's a fast
than them.
In axonal degeneration: both the axon and myelin sheath get
fragmented completely. Then the macrophages remove the
remnants. Schwann cells remain and form a tubular structure.

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 Regeneration

It starts as soon as macrophages remove the debris of the

axon and myelin sheath and clean the area. Macrophages produce
interleukin- 1,which stimulates Schwann cells to; 1) produce
substances that promote growth of neurofibrils inside the axon
(nerve fiber). 2) proliferate forming a solid cellular column. This
solid column of Schwann cells serve as a guide for the growing
neurofibrils of the axon during regeneration. Then these
neurofibrils progress in the direction of Schwann cells’ column.
Only neurofibrils penetrate this column will continue to grow after
canalization of the solid cellular mass by macrophages. The
neurofibrils grow away from the cellular mass are removed by
macrophages.
precautions for regeneration to take place:
1- The two cut ends must be close to each other.
2- The wound has to be clean (i.e. there is no infection).
3- The two segments have to be on one line.

NEURONAL PLASTICITY
After an injury, the neuronal circuts may be re-organized by
growth of new neuronal processes forming new synapses to
replace the lost ones.Thus new communications are established
with some dgree of functional recovery. This property is called
neuronal plasticity.This process is controlled by several factors
produced by surrounding neurons, glial cells, Schwann cells and
target cells. These factors are called neurotrophins.

NERVE ENDINGS
They are specialized nervous structures present in certain
areas of the body. They include receptors & effectors.
I- RECEPTORS
Receptors : these nervous structures receive stimuli. They are
classified into:

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I- Receptors for Special Sense as receptors of:
*vision *hearing
*smell *taste *equilibrium
II- Exteroceptors
Receptors present on the surface of the body (in the skin) for:
*pain *temperature
*touch
III- Visceroceptors:
Receptors present in the internal viscera as stomach & Urinary
bladder.
IV- Proprioceptors for:
*deep pressure *vibration sense
*sense of position
EXTEROCEPTORS
A) Receptors of Epithelial Tissue (non capsulated receptors):
1- Free naked nerve ending:
The non myelinated sensory nerve fiber penetrates the
basement membrane and branches in between the epithelial
cells.They are responsible for reception of pain and temperature.
2- Merkel,s Disc:
In the basal cell layer of the epidermis, a modified broad cell
called Merkel’s cell attached to the adjacent cells by
desmosomes.The non-myelinated axon under Merkel’s cell,
terminates by a disc–like structure called Merkel's tactile disc.They
respond to deep touch sensation.They may have functions related
to the diffuse neuro-endocrine system i.e. secrete hormones on
neuronal stimulation.

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 3- Peritrichial Ending (Bounet plexus):
It is a plexus of non-myelinated nerve fibers around the hair
follicle.They respond to hair movements. It is mechanoreceptor.

4- Sensory fibers:
These fibers present around neuro-epithelial cells of taste buds in
the tongue.
B ) Receptors of C.T. (capsulated receptors):
1- Meissner,s corpuscle:
It lies in the dermal papillae. It is oval in shape. Its centeral part
contains flattened modified Schwann cells.The non- myelinated
naked nerve fiber branches repeatedly inside it. They are
receptors for deep touch.

krause end organ

2- Krause,s End Blub: It is spherical in shape.The nerve loses its
myelin sheath outside the capsule. Inside it, the N.F. branches &
then terminates by coiled expanded ends.They act as
mechanoreceptors for deep pressure.

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3- Ruffine End Organ:
It is elongated in shape.The capsule contains collagenous
fibers separated by fluid & macrophages.The non myelinated
sensory nerve branches to form cluster of nerve endings.They act
as mechanoreceptors.
4- Paccinian Corpuscle:
It is oval in shape. It is formed of numerous concentric lamellae
(similar to sliced onion).These lamellae are (20-70) in number.
They are modified Schwann cells joined together by desmosomes.
The lamellae are separated by fliud & collagen fibers.The
myelinated N.F. enters one pole of the corpuscle after some
distance it loses its myelin sheath.Then it loses its Schwann
cells.The naked axon passes to the center & terminates by an
expansion. It present in the dermis of the sole & palm.They also,

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present in some organs as pancreas & thymus.They act as
proprioceptors.

Muscle receptors or Muscle Spindle

Human striated muscles (e.g. intercostal muscles) have
capsulated, fusiform shaped receptors known as muscle
spindle.These structures consist of C.T. capsule that surrounds
fluid –filled space.This space is called subcapsular space. It
contains intrafusal muscle fibers which are of two subtypes:
a) Nuclear bag type:
They are long, thick & few (1-4) in number, with an expanded
center having no striations.This centeral portion is rich in nuclei
(about 50 in number). Nuclear bag fibers are either: dynamic or
static.
b) Nuclear Chain type:
They are thin, short more numerous (1-10) in number.They
contain a chain of nuclei at its centre.
Both nuclear bag & nuclear chain are composed of centeral non
contractile part (has nuclei) and contractile (striated) parts at the

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ends.

Nerve supply of the muscle spindle:

The exterafusal muscle fibers are innervated by alpha motor
nerves that originate from large cells of the anterior horn ( AHC)
of the spinal cord. The contractile parts of dynamic nuclear bag
fibers are innervated by Dynamic Gamma Motor Fibers (from
small cells in AH).The contractile parts of static nuclear bag &
nuclear chain fibers are supplied by Static Gamma Motor
Fibers.The non contractile (non striated) parts of both types of
intrafusal muscle fibers are innervated by sensory nerves in the
form of annulospiral & flower spray.These sensory fibers reach to
the posterior horn cells (PHC) of the spinal cord.
N B:
• STATIC contraction: is the maintained stretch of the
muscle fibers (sustained contraction or muscle tone). It
is because that the length of the muscle fiber is shorter
than the distance between its origin & insertion.

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 • Dynamic contraction: means tendon jerk (sudden
contraction of the muscle for short duration). It causes
tendon jerk
Both sustained contraction & tendon jerk form stertch reflex .
TS in muscle spindle

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 Receptors of Tendon
Tendon Spindle: it lies in tendons, near the muscle
insersion. It is formed of C.T. capsule surrounding bundles of
collagen fibers that are contiuous with collagen fibers that
make up the myo-tendinous junction.The sensory nerve
fibers penetrate the capsule.This structure is called Golgi
tendon organ. It detects the difference in tension inside
the tendon.

II- Effector Nerve Ending

It is the termination of motor nerve fibers in muscles
(skeletal muscles, cardiac & smooth muscles) which is called
myoneural junction. Other motor fibers (secertory fibers)
terminate around secertory units (acini) of glands.

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