This subject is related to Nervous Consists of the nerves that

system so that let’s review first what convey messages from the
is the Nervous system sense organs to the CNS
and from the CNS to the
The nervous system is composed of two muscles and glands.
major divisions: the b. Autonomic nervous
system - whereas
Central nervous system (CNS) autonomic nerves
The CNS includes the brain and spinal innervate cardiac muscle,
cord smooth muscle, and
glands
Part of the CNS found within the spinal column; A set of neurons that
the spinal cord communicates with the sense control the heart, the
organs and muscles below the level of the head.
intestines, and other
organs.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS).
the PNS includes all the nerves that
conduct impulses to and from the CNS. WEEK 2: The
Biological
Often, the PNS is further subdivided into
Approach to Behavior
the:
Biological Psychology is the study of
● Afferent division - includes the physiological, evolutionary, and
nerves leading toward the CNS, developmental mechanisms of behavior
or sensory nerves. and experience. Much of biological
● Efferent division - includes psychology is devoted to studying how
nerves leading away from the the brain functions.
CNS, or motor nerves. (palabas)

The efferent division, in turn, can The term biological psychology

be subdivided into the: emphasizes that the goal of this field is
to relate biology to issues of psychology.
In comparison, the field of neuroscience
Although both efferent divisions carry includes much of the same content but
nerve signals away from the brain and with more emphasis on chemistry and
spinal cord, they differ in their final anatomy.
destination.
Focus on brain function (i.e., how
neurons and glia cells work): The
a. Somatic nervous activities of neurons and glia somehow
system - nerves end at produce an enormous wealth of
skeletal muscle. behavior and experience.
 The Anatomy of Neurons and Glia

Biological Explanations of The nervous system is composed of two

Behavior types of cells:
1. Physiological explanations: Relate
behavior to the activity of the brain and 1. Neurons
other organs. Deal with the machinery of 2. Glia.
the body.

2. Ontogenetic explanations: Describe NEURONS

the development of a structure or a
behavior. Look at the influence of
genes, nutrition, experience, and the
interaction among these influences on
behavior.
Neurons respond to feelings and
communicate the presence of that
feeling to our central nervous system
and processed it and sent to the other
parts of our body for action.

3. Evolutionary explanations:
Examine a structure or a behavior in
terms of evolutionary history. Examine
the continuity (unbroken course) of a
behavior from past ancestors to the
present.
4. Functional explanations: Describe
why a structure or behavior evolved as it
did. Look for the benefit or advantage
for having certain behaviors.

The Cells of the Nervous System

This is the cell type who conduct
impulses or action potentials.

Cells that receive and transmit

information to other cells.

The human brain contains

approximately 100 billion neurons
(though that estimate varies from person
to person).
Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1800’s): Used
staining techniques to reveal that small
gaps separate the tips of one neuron
from another. This discovery showed
that the brain—like the rest of the body
—is composed of individual cells.
The Structure of a Neuron:
As we get older our neuron getting weak
Neurons is the one who deliver
message
The most distinctive structural feature of
neurons is their shape, which varies
enormously. Larger neurons contain
four major components: dendrites, cell
body, axon, and presynaptic terminal.
The tiniest neurons may lack axons and
well-defined dendrites.
Types of neurons:
● A motor neuron: Conducts
impulses to muscles and glands
from the spinal cord.
Ito rin ang pinakamabilis mag
transmit ng messege.
Transmit impulses from the
spinal cord to skeletal and
smooth muscles (such as those
in your stomach), and so directly
control all of our muscle
movements
Motor neurons receive impulses
from the spinal cord or the brain
and sent it from the muscles
causing muscular contraction and
these also effect the gland
secretion.
● A sensory neuron (receptor
neurons): Sensitive to certain
kinds of stimulation (e.g., light,
touch, pain, hearing, vision and
taste. ).
-Allow us to receive from the
outside world through our senses
● Inter Neurons - Allow us to think,
see, and perceive our neurons
Neuron components:
Dendrites: Branching fibers that extend
from the cell body and get narrower at
their end. The dendrite’s surface is lined
with specialized synaptic receptors, at
which the dendrite receives information
from other neurons.
Dendritic spines: Short outgrowths
found on some dendritic branches.
Cell body (soma): Contains the
nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, and
other structures found in most cells.
-It is also an enlarged area filled with
cytoplasm and containing the nucleus
and organelles called Nissl bodies
Axon: A long, thin fiber (usually longer
than dendrites), which is the
information-sending part of the neuron,
sending an electrical impulse toward
other neurons, glands, or muscles.
-Kung saan natatransmit yung mga
messege.
-The messege transmitted is more likely
electricity but a low electrical current
lang.
-The som by forms a cone-shaped
projection, or axon hillock, as it projects
to become the axon. The axon is one of
two types of neuron projections (fibers).
The
axon usually conducts action potentials
away from the cell body
Myelin sheath: Insulating covering
found on some vertebrate axons.
-Cover of Axons
Schwann Cells
Produce Myelin Sheat but not in the
Brain and Spinal cord
-The axon wrapped with a series of
neuroglial cells called Schwann cells.
-Schwann cells wrap around the axons
of some peripheral nerves like tape,
each spiraling around a fiber to form a
multilayered coating, The inner layers of
the Schwann cell are filled with the fatty
white substance myelin. Because the
Schwann cells are found in series, they
form a segmented sheath of Schwann,
or myelin sheath. The gaps between the
Schwann cells are termed nodes of
Ranvier. The outer wrapping of each
Schwann cell is normal cytoplasm, with
organelles and a nucleus. In the case
described, the axon is called a white
fiber, or myelinated fiber. A group of
white fibers together is called white
matter.
Schwann cells occur only in the PNS.
Within the CNS, myelinated axons are
wrapped with extensions of
oligodendrocytes, another type of
neuroglial cell.
Nodes of Ranvier: Interruptions along
the myelin sheath
Presynaptic terminal (end bulb):
Swelling at the tip of the axon. The part
of the neuron that releases chemicals
that cross the junction between one
neuron and the next.
Other terms associated with
neurons:
Afferent axons: Brings information into
a structure.
Efferent axons: Sends information
away from a structure.
Interneurons (intrinsic neurons):
Entirely located within a single structure
of the nervous system.
GLIA or NEUROGLIA
Glia are the other major component of
the nervous system. Glia have many
different functions but they do not
transmit information like neurons. Glia
are smaller and more numerous than
neurons. Several types of glia exists to
perform different functions.
Parang ginu-glue nya lang yung mga
neurons or pinagdidikit dikit.
Astrocytes: A type of glia that absorbs
chemicals released by axons and later
returns those chemicals back to the
axon to help synchronize the activity of
neurons. Astrocytes remove waste
products as well, particularly those
created after neurons die. Astrocytes
also cause blood vessels to dilate to
bring in more nutrients at times of
increased brain activity. They act as a
recycling system for glutamate released
by neurons (absorbing excess
glutamate then converting it to
glutamine and passing it back into the
neurons).
-Star shaped yubg nucleus, its function
is to recycle glutemate
Microglia: Very small cells that remove
waste material as well as viruses, fungi,
and other microorganisms.
-Smallest, remove waste materials like
fungi.
-Tinatanggal niya lang and only function
in Nervous system unlike the antibodies.
Oligodendrocytes A type of glia that
builds the myelin sheaths around certain
neurons in the brain and spinal cord.
Schwann cells: A type of glia that builds
the myelin sheaths around certain
neurons in the periphery of the body.
Radial glia: Guides the migration of
neurons and the growth of axons and
dendrites during embryonic
development.
-Nagbubuild ng Myelin sheath dahil
kapag mas maràmi mas mabilis mag
transmit (Brain and Spinal)
The Nerve Impulse
The Resting Potential
The membrane of a neuron maintains
an electrical gradient (a difference in
electrical charge between the inside and
outside of the cell).
In the absence of any outside
disturbance (i.e., at rest), the membrane
maintains an electrical polarization (i.e.,
a difference in electrical charge between
two locations) that is slightly more
negative on the inside relative to the
outside. This difference in electrical
potential or voltage is known as the
resting potential.
The resting potential is measured by
very thin microelectrodes. A typical
resting membrane potential is -70
millivolts (mV). This may vary from one
neuron to another.
-Di gumagalaw, di nag rirelease ng
messege and yung laman ng nucleus
no'n ay nagbibigay lang ng (sodium,
iodine, and chloride)
The Action Potential
Hyperpolarization (increased
polarization): Occurs when the negative
charge inside the axon increases (e.g., -
70 mV becomes -80 mV).
Depolarization (reduced polarization
towards zero): Occurs when the
negative charge inside the axon
decreases (e.g., -70 mV becomes -55
mV).
Threshold of excitation (threshold): The
level that a depolarization must reach
for an action potential to occur. A
subthreshold stimulation produces a
small response proportional to the
amount of current. However, as long as
the stimulation is above the threshold,
regardless of how far beyond, the
stimulation produces a big response.
Action potential are messages sent by
axons. A rapid depolarization and slight
reversal of the usual membrane
polarization. Occurs when
depolarization meets or goes beyond
the threshold of excitation.
Week 3: Communication
at Synapses
The Properties of Synapses
(specialized gaps between
neurons)
Sherrington deduced the properties of
the synapse from his experiments on
reflexes (an automatic muscular
response to stimuli).
Neurons connect each using Synapse;
pathway connection that transmit
signals to other cells to form nervous
system.
Reflex arc:
-The circuit from sensory neuron to
muscle response.
-It is also the nerve pathways.
-It is a way of visualizing the direction of
transmission or nerve signals (action
potentials)
Sherrington discovered that:
a. Reflexes are slower than conduction
along an axon.
b. Several weak stimuli presented at
slightly different times or locations
produce a stronger reflex than a single
stimulus does.
c. Excitation of one set of muscles leads
to a relaxation of others.
Speed of a Reflex and Delayed
Transmission at the Synapse
Temporal summation is the repeated
stimuli within a brief time having a
cumulative effect.
The presynaptic neuron is a neuron
that delivers the synaptic transmission.
Postsynaptic neuron is a neuron that
receives the message.
Graded potential:
● Either depolarization (excitatory)
or
 ● Hyperpolarization (inhibitory) of
the postsynaptic neuron.
A graded depolarization is known as an
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
and occurs when Na+ ions enter the
postsynaptic neuron. EPSPs are not
action potentials: The EPSP’s
magnitude decreases as it moves along
the membrane.
Spatial summation: Several synaptic
inputs originating from separate
locations exerting a cumulative effect on
a postsynaptic neuron.
Biolig For example, pinching one point
does not produce a reflex but pinching
two points at once does. This happens
because the two points activated
separate sensory neurons, whose axons
converged onto a neuron in the spinal
cord. Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
(IPSP): A temporary hyperpolarization of
a postsynaptic cell (this occurs when K+
leaves the cell or Cl- enters the cell after
it is stimulated).
The Sequence of Chemical
Events at a Synapse
1. Neurons synthesize chemicals called
neurotransmitters.
2. Action potentials travel down the
axon. At the axon or presynaptic
terminal, the action potentials cause
calcium to enter the cell, which leads to
the release of neurotransmitters from
the terminal into the synaptic cleft
(space between the presynaptic and
postsynaptic neuron).
3. Neurotransmitters, once released into
the synaptic cleft, attach to receptors
and alter activity of the postsynaptic
neuron.
4. The neurotransmitters will separate
from their receptors and (in some cases)
are converted into inactive chemicals.
5. In some cells, much of the released
neurotransmitter is taken back into the
presynaptic neuron for recycling. In
some cells, empty vesicles are returned
to the cell body.
6. Some postsynaptic cells send
negative feedback messages to slow
further release of the transmitter by the
presynaptic cells
Synapses, Drugs, and Addictions
1. Drugs can affect synapses by either
blocking the effects (an antagonist) or
mimicking (increasing) the effects (an
agonist) of a neurotransmitter. A drug
that is a mixed agonist-antagonist is an
agonist for some behavioral effects or
doses and an antagonist for others.
2. Drugs can influence synaptic activity
in many ways, including altering
synthesis of the neurotransmitter,
disrupting the vesicles, increasing
release, decreasing reuptake, blocking
its breakdown into inactive chemicals, or
directly simulating or blocking
postsynaptic receptors.
3. Affinity: How strongly the drug
attaches to the receptor.
4. Efficacy: The tendency of the drug to
activate a receptor.
Week 4:Brain Anatomy
Terminology to Describe the Nervous
System
The vertebrate nervous system is
comprised of the central nervous system
and the peripheral nervous system.
● Central nervous system (CNS):
Consists of the brain and spinal
cord.
● Peripheral nervous system
(PNS): Consists of the nerves
outside the brain and the spinal
cord.
Anatomical Terms Referring to Direction
a. Dorsal: toward the back
b. Ventral: toward the stomach
c. Anterior: toward the front
d. Posterior: toward the rear
e. Superior: above another part
f. Inferior: below another part
g. Lateral: toward the side, away from
the midline
h. Medial: toward the midline, away from
the side
i. Proximal: located close to the point of
origin or attachment
j. Distal: located more distant from the
point of origin or attachment
k. Ipsilateral: on the same side of the
body
l. Contralateral: on the opposite side of
the body
m. Coronal plane: plane that shows the
brain structures as seen from the front
n. Saggital plane: plane that shows the
brain structures as seen from the side
o. Horizontal plane: plane that shows
brain structures as seen from above.
a set of neurons that receives
information and sends commands to the
heart, intestines, and other organs.
The ANS is composed of two divisions:
1. Sympathetic nervous system: "Fight
or Flight" system (prepares body for
action by increasing heart rate, blood
pressure, etc.). The sympathetic system
consists of two paired chains of ganglia
lying near the spinal cord’s central
regions (thoracic and lumbar areas) and
connected by axons to the spinal cord.
Because the ganglia for the sympathetic
nervous system are near the spinal
cord, they often act as a single system.
The sweat glands, adrenal glands, the
muscles that constrict blood vessels,
and the muscles that erect the hairs of
the skin only receive sympathetic input.
2. Parasympathetic nervous system:
Vegetative nonemergency system
(parasympathetic activities are generally
opposite of sympathetic activities). The
parasympathetic nervous system is also
known as the craniosacral system
because it consists of cranial nerves
and nerves from the sacral spinal cord.
The parasympathetic ganglia are not
close to the spinal cord. Long
preganglionic fibers extend from the
spinal cord to the ganglia that are
located close to the target organs. Short
postganglionic fibers extend from the
ganglia to the nearby organs.
Parasympathetic postganglionic fibers
release acetylcholine. Most sympathetic
postganglionic fibers release
norepinephrine, although a few
sympathetic postganglionic fibers use
acetylcholine.
The Frontal Lobe is just located at the
most anterior area of the cerebral cortex
and extends to the central sulcus.
Contains the primary motor cortex and
prefrontal cortex.
Precentral Gyrus (also known as the
primary motor cortex): Located just
anterior to the central sulcus.
Specialized for the control of fine motor
movements, such as moving one finger
at a time, primarily on the contralateral
side of the body.
Prefrontal Cortex is found in the most
anterior portion of the frontal lobe.
Forms a large portion of the brain in
large-brained species. Receives
information from all of our senses.
Prefrontal lobotomy is done by
disconnecting the prefrontal cortex from
the rest of the brain to control
psychological disorders. This practice
was almost completely abandoned after
effective drug therapies became
available. Prefrontal lobotomies
commonly resulted in a loss of the ability
to plan and take initiative, memory
disorders, distractibility, and a loss of
emotional expression. In addition,
people with prefrontal damage lost their
social inhibitions and often acted
impulsively.
Research Methods
Describing the structure of the brain is a
straightforward endeavor.
Understanding how the brain works is
more difficult. The main categories of
methods for studying brain function are
as follows:
1. Examine the effects of brain damage.
2. Examine the effects of stimulating a
brain area.
3. Record brain activity during behavior.
4. Correlate brain anatomy with
behavior.
Week 5: Brain
Development
and Plasticity
The Development of the Brain
Maturation of the Vertebrate Brain
The human central nervous system
begins to form when the embryo is
about two
weeks old. A neural tube forms around a
fluid-filled cavity; this structure
eventually sinks under the skin surface
and develops into the hindbrain,
midbrain, and forebrain.
The fluid-filled cavity becomes the
central canal and the four ventricles.
The human brain weighs approximately
350 grams at birth and around 1,000
grams at one year of age. The average
adult brain weighs between 1,200 and
1,400 grams. Growth and Development
of Neurons
The five steps of neuron
development:
a. Proliferation: Production of new
cells; cells along the ventricles of the
brain divide to become neurons and
glia.
b. Migration: Movement of primitive
neurons and glia toward their final
destination in the brain. Chemicals
known as immunoglobulins and
chemokine guide the new cells to their
eventual destination in the brain
c. Differentiation: Neurons develop an
axon and dendrites (thi S2s
distinguishes
neurons from other cells in the body);
the axon grows before the dendrites,
while the neuron is migrating toward its
destination.
d. Myelination: Glia cells produce
myelin sheaths around axons which
allow for rapid transmission. In humans,
myelin forms first in the spinal cord
before forming in the brain. Myelination
begins during the prenatal period and
continues into adulthood.
e. Synaptogenesis: Formation of
synapses. This is the last step in neural
Determinants of Neuronal Survival
While working on the sympathetic
ganglion, Rita Levi-Montalcini
discovered that muscles that synapse
with the axons from the ganglia don’t
determine how many neurons are
produced but which synapses survive.
She discovered that muscles produce
and release nerve growth factor (NGF),
which promotes the survival and growth
of axons. Axons that don’t receive
enough NGF degenerate and their cell
bodies die.
All neurons are born with this suicide
program and will automatically die if the
right
synaptic connection is not made. This
programmed cell death is called
apoptosis. Neurotrophin: a chemical
(like NGF) that promotes the survival
and activity of neurons. In addition to
NGF, the brain also uses brain-derived
neurotrophic factor (BDNF) as a
neurotrophin. BDNF is the most
abundant neurotrophin in the adult
mammalian cortex. Initially, all areas of
the developing nervous system produce
far more neurons than will survive into
adulthood. This loss of cells is a natural
part of development.
The Vulnerable Developing Brain
Compared to the mature brain, the
developing brain is more vulnerable to
malnutrition, toxic chemicals, and
infections.
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS):
Caused by alcoholic consumption during
pregnancy. Symptoms include
decreased alertness, hyperactivity,
facial
abnormalities, mental retardation, motor
problems, and heart defects.
Infant brains are especially sensitive to
alcohol because it suppressed the
release of glutamate, the brain’s main
excitatory transmitter. Thus, neurons
receive less excitation and undergo
apoptosis. Prenatal exposure to cocaine
or cigarette smoking is associated with
attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) and other behavioral deficits.
Children exposed to antidepressant
drugs during pregnancy have increased
risk of heart problems. Social influences
also affect the developing brain.
Children of impoverished or abused
mothers have increased problems in
both academic and social functioning.
Brain Development and Behavioral
Development
Adolescence
Adolescents are widely regarded as
impulsive and prone to seek immediate
pleasure. Research shows adolescents
are able to make reasonable, mature
decisions when they have had time to
consider the options carefully. However,
they are impulsive when making quick
decisions, especially in the face of peer
Pressure.
Adolescence "troublesome age"
Old Age
On average, people’s memory and
reasoning fade beyond age 60 because
neurons alter their synapses more
slowly. The volume of the hippocampus
also gradually declines. In addition, the
frontal cortex begins thinning at age
However, there is great variance in the
level of deterioration in different people
Higher performing older adults activate
more brain areas to make up for less
efficient activity.
Plasticity After Brain Damage
Brain Damage and Short-Term
Recovery
Brain damage can result from a number
of causes, including tumors, infections,
exposure to radiation or toxic
substances, and degenerative
conditions such as
Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease.
Closed head injury is caused by a sharp
blow to the head that does not actually
puncture the brain. The most common
cause of brain damage in young people.
Closed head injuries damage the brain
because of rotational forces that drive
the brain tissue against the inside of the
skull
Later Mechanisms of Recovery
 Axon Sprouting
Sprouting is a normal condition, as the
Brain Damage and Short-Term
brain is constantly adding new
Recovery
branches of axons and dendrites and
withdrawing old ones. This process
Brain damage can result from a number
accelerates in response to damage.
of causes, including tumors, infections,
exposure to radiation or toxic
Collateral sprouts
substances, and degenerative
A newly formed branch from an
conditions such as Parkinson’s and
uninjured axon. The collateral sprouts
Alzheimer’s disease. Closed head injury
attach to a synapse vacated when the
is caused by a sharp blow to the head
original axon was destroyed. This
that does not actually puncture the
process is initiated by neurotrophins
brain. The most common cause of brain
secreted by the cells that have lost their
damage in young people. Closed head
source of innervation.
injuries damage the brain because of
rotational forces that drive the brain
tissue against the inside of the skull.

Increased Brain Stimulation

Diaschisis is a decreased activity of

surviving neurons after other neurons
are destroyed. Behavioral deficits due to
diaschisis can sometimes be improved
with the use of stimulant drugs.

Regrowth of Axons
Under certain circumstances, damaged
axons can grow back. However,
regeneration is minimal in the mature
mammalian central nervous system,
possibly because of a large amount of
scar tissue or the secretion of growth
inhibiting chemicals.