Republic of the Philippines

COTABATO STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

WRITTEN REPORT IN HUMAN

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Title: Nervous System

Group name: MINIONS

Members
Bai Rahima A. Paki
Jannisa A. Balilia
Shaina C. Carudin
Rejane M. Balilid
Hanna M. Said

Submitted to:
Ms. Bai Rehanah V. Dilna, RN
Learning outcomes

 To Communicate between different body parts, detecting stimuli in the body, and directing
the body's responses.

 To list the basic functions of the nervous system.

 To describe the spine and the relationship of its parts.

 To compare the distinguishing features of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae.

 To distinguish between the parts of a spinal nerve, and explain how spinal
nerve arenamed.

 To describe the cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem.

 To describe the function of the brain.

OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

What is the nervous system?

 Your nervous system guides almost everything you do, think, say or feel.

 It controls complicated processes like movement, thought and memory.

 It also plays an essential role in the things your body does without thinking, such as
breathing, blushing and blinking.

Nervous system affects every aspect of your health, includes:

 Thoughts, memory, learning, and feelings.

 Movements, such as balance and coordination.

 Senses, including how your brain interprets what you see, hear, taste, touch and feel.

 Sleep, healing and aging.

 Heartbeat and breathing patterns.

 Response to stressful situations.

 Digestion, as well as how hungry and thirsty you feel.

 Body processes, such as puberty.

What does the nervous system do?

 Your nervous system uses specialized cells called neurons to send signals, or
messages,all over your body.

 The messages help you move your limbs and feel sensations, such as pain.

 Your eyes, ears, tongue, nose and the nerves all over your body take in
information aboutyour environment.

 Then nerves carry that data to and from your brain.

Different kinds of neurons send different signals.

 Motor neurons tell your muscles to move.

 Sensory neurons take information from your senses and send signals to your brain.

 Other types of neurons control the things your body does automatically, like
breathing,shivering, having a regular heartbeat and digesting food.

The main parts of the nervous system are:

1. Central nervous system (CNS)

2. Peripheral nervous system

Peripheral nervous system contains:

1. Somatic nervous system

2. Autonomic nervous system

STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system can be divided into two major regions:

1. Central Nervous System (brain, spinal cord)

Brain- Nervous tissue contained within the cranium.

Spinal cord- Extension of nervous tissue within the vertebral column.

2. Peripheral Nervous System (everything else)

Two regions within nervous system structures are often referred to:

1. Gray matter- The regions with many cell bodies and dendrites.

2. White matter- The regions with many axons.

Gray matter (the regions with many cell bodies and dendrites)White matter (the regions with

many axons).

FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 The nervous system is involved in receiving information about the environment around
us (sensation) and generating responses to that information (motor responses).

 The nervous system can be divided into regions that are responsible for sensation
(sensory functions) and for the response (motor functions).

 Some regions of the nervous system are termed integration or association areas, process
of integration combines sensory perceptions and higher cognitive functions such as
memories, learning, and emotion to produce a response.
  The first major function of the nervous system is sensation - receiving information about
the environment to gain input about what is happening outside the body (or, sometimes,
within the body).

 The sensory functions of the nervous system register the presence of a change from
homeostasis or a particular event in the environment, known as a stimulus.

Organization of the Nervous System

Introduction
The functions of the nervous system
1. Collection of sensory input: Identifies changes occurring insideor outside the body by
using sensory receptors. These changes are called stimuli.
2. Integration: Processes, analyzes, and interprets these changesand makes decisions.
3. Motor output: response by activating muscles or glands(effectors).
Types of organizations in the nervous system

Structural Organization
Central Nervous System (CNS): Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
 Consists of Brain & Spinal cord Consists of nerves, ganglia,
 Occupies the dorsal body cavity. receptors.
 Acts as the integrating and It is the part of the nervous
command centers systemoutside the CNS. (Outside
dorsal body cavity.)

Functional Organization
Sensory (Afferent division): Motor (Efferent division):
 Consists of nerve fibers that  Consists of nerve fibers that
convey impulses from receptors convey impulses from the CNS
located in various parts of the to the effector muscles, organs,
body, to the CNS and glands.

The Nervous system

 Major controlling, regulatory & communicating system in the body.
 It is the center of all mental activity including: Thought, Learning,
Behaviorand Memory.
 Responsible for regulating and maintaining homeostasis together with the
endocrine system.

Nervous tissues
 Nervous system is composed of nervous tissue, which contains two types of
cells: neurons and neuroglia (glial cells).
 Nervous system contains millions of neurons that vary in their shape, size,and
number of processes.
Nervous tissue is organized as

Gray matter White matter

Which contains: Which contains:
1. Processes of the neurons 1. Processes of the neurons
2. Neuroglia 2. Neuroglia
3. Blood vessels 3. Blood vessels
4. cell bodies of neurons 4. NO cell bodies in the white
matter

Types of cells in nervous tissue:

1. Nerve cell (Neuron): Basic structural/anatomical, functional and embryological

unit of the nervous system. Human nervous systemestimated to contain about
1010.

2. Supporting cell (Glial cell): makes the other major cellular component of the
nervous tissue. A specialized connective tissue supporting framework for the
nervous system, unlike neurons, neuroglia DO NOT have a direct role in
information processing but they are essential for the normal functioning of the
neurons, they act as supporting and nutrition for neurons.

Neuron contains:
 Cell body (soma)
 Dendrites: short processes of the cell body with variable numbers which are
receptive in function.
 Axon: processes leaving the cell body which carries information away from
the cell body. They’re highly variable in length and may divide into several
Axon collaterals through which information can be distributed to a number of
different destinations. could be covered by myelin or neurilemma
 Terminal buttons: specializations occur at the end of the axon, hereinformation
is transferred to the dendrites of other neurons.
 Synapse/relay: it’s the junction site of two neurons, the membranes of adjacent
cells are in close apposition (contiguity=contact, not continuity).
 Differences between the terms in the CNS & PNS:

Central nervous system (CNS)

Nucleus Tract
A group of neurons within the CNS A group of nerve fibers (axons) withinthe
CNS

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Ganglion Nerve
A group of neurons outsidethe CNS A group of nerve fibers (axons)
outside the CNS
● Spinal nerves supplying the upper or lower limbs form plexuses e.g. brachial/lumbar
plexus

Autonomic Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System

 Neurons that detect changes and control the activity of the viscera.
 Its components are present in both the central and peripheral nervous
systems.
 It innervates: smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, secretory glands.
 It is an important part of the homeostatic mechanisms that control the internal
environment of the body with the endocrine system.
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic (Thoracolumbar outflow)
(Craniosacral outflow)
> Divisions are generally have antagonistic effects on the structures that theyinnervate.
> E.g., Sympathetic increases the heart rate, while the parasympathetic
decreases the heart rate.
 Parts of The Brain
(Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Brainstem, Diencephalon)

Cerebral hemispheres

 The largest part of the brain.

 Composed of 2 hemispheres connected by a thick bundle of nerve fibers (corpus
callosum)
 They have elevations, called gyri that are separated by depressions calledsulci.
 Each hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes named according to the bone above.
 Lobes are separated by deeper grooves called fissures or sulci.

Tissue of Cerebral hemispheres

 The outer layer is the gray matter or cortex.
 Deeper is located the white matter or medulla, composed of bundles ofnerves
and fibers carrying impulses to and from the cortex.
 Basal nuclei are gray matter that are located deep within the white matter tohelp the
motor cortex in regulation of voluntary motor activities.

Parts of The Brain Cont

Cerebellum
> Cerebellum has 2 cerebellar hemispheres with convoluted surface.
> It has an outer cortex of gray matter and an inner region of white matter.
> It provides precise coordination for body movements and helps maintain equilibrium.

Brainstem
● It is connected to the cerebellum with 3 paired peduncles superior, middle andinferior.

 The brainstem has three parts:

1. Midbrain.
2. Pons.
3. Medulla oblongata.
 Diencephalon
The diencephalon is located between the 2 cerebral hemispheres and is linked to them and to
the brainstem.

 The major structures of the diencephalon are:

1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Subthalamus
4. Epithalamus.B

NERVOUS TISSUE

What is a Nervous Tissue?

Nervous or the nerve tissue is the main tissue of our nervous system. It monitors andregulates the
functions of the body. Nervous tissue consists of two cells: nerve cells or neurons and glial cells.

Structure Of Nervous Tissue

 It is made of nerve cells or neurons, all of which consists of an axon. Axonsare long
stem-like projections emerging out of the cell, responsible for communicating with
other cells called the Target cells, thereby passing impulses.
  The main part is the cell body which contains the nucleus, cytoplasm and cell
organelles. Extensions of the cell membrane are referred to as processes.

What is a Nervous Tissue?

Nervous or the nerve tissue is the main tissue of our nervous system. It monitors andregulates the
functions of the body. Nervous tissue consists of two cells: nerve cells or neurons and glial cells.

Structure Of Nervous Tissue

 It is made of nerve cells or neurons, all of which consists of an axon. Axonsare long
stem-like projections emerging out of the cell, responsible for communicating with
other cells called the Target cells, thereby passing impulses.
 The main part is the cell body which contains the nucleus, cytoplasm and cell
organelles. Extensions of the cell membrane are referred to as processes.
 Dendrite is a highly branched processes, responsible for receiving information from
other neurons and synapses (specialized point of contact). Information of other
neurons is provided by dendrites to connect with its cell body.
 Information in a neuron is unidirectional as it passes through neurons fromdendrites,
across the cell body down the axon.

Characteristics Of Nervous Tissue

 Nervous tissue makes up for the CNS and PNS of the nervous system.
 Contains two distinct cells – neurons and glial cells.
 It consists of the dendrites, cell body, axon and nerve endings.
 Neurons secrete chemical neurotransmitters which are responsible forstimulating
other neurons as a result of a stimuli.
 Presence of specialization at axonal terminals called synapsis.
 Nerve cells live long, cannot be divided and replaced (except memory cells).

Function Of Nervous Tissue

 Neurons generate and carry out nerve impulses. They produce electricalsignals that
are transmitted across distances, they do so by secreting chemical neurotransmitters.
 Responds to stimuli.
 Carries out communication and integration.
 Provides electrical insulations to nerve cells and removes debris.
 Carries messages from other neurons to the cell body.
 Types Of Nerves

Motor nerves
 Motor neurons or motor nerves are responsible to send signals or impulses all the
way from spinal cord and brain to all the muscles of the body.

Sensory nerves
 The sensory nerves or sensory neurons are responsible to generate impulses or
signals in the contrasting directions from another type of nerves known as the
motor neuron.
Autonomic nerves

 The autonomic nerves system controls the actions of the muscles of the heart,such
smooth muscles located in the stomach and in the interlining of glands and other
organs.

Cranial nerves
 The cranial nerves are crucial in smell, vision, movement of the face andeyes,
movements of the tongue and salivation.

GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL IMPULSES

 The cells in nervous tissue that generate and conduct impulses are called neurons or nerve
cells.
 These cells have three principal parts: the dendrites, the cell body, and one axon
 The main part of the cell, the part that carries on the general functions, is the cell body.
 Nervous tissue also includes cells that do not transmit impulses, but instead support the
activities of the neurons.
 These are the glial cells (neuroglia cells), together termed the neuroglia.
 Supporting, or glia, cells bind neurons together and insulate the neurons.
 Some are phagocytic and protect against bacterial invasion, while others provide nutrients by
binding blood vessels to the neurons.
 HOW DOES IT WORK?

 It begins when the neuron receives a chemical signal from another cell or some other type of
stimulus.
 The action potential travels rapidly down the neuron’s axon as an electric current and occurs
in three stages: Depolarization, Repolarization, and Recovery.

MAIN PARTS OF THE NERVE IMPULSES AND THEIR FUNCTION

Dendrite- receives input from many other neurons and carry those signals to the cell body. If
stimulated enough, a neuron fires an action potential — an electrical impulse that then stimulates
other neurons.
Cell Body- which carries out most of the neuron's basic cellular functioning.
Nucleus- is to transmit nerve impulses Afferent, or sensory, neurons carry impulses from peripheral
sense receptors to the CNS.
Axon- where electrical impulses from the neuron travel away to be received by other neurons.
Axon Terminal- to release neurotransmitters when stimulated by an electrical signal carried by the
axon.
Node of Ranvier- a periodic gap in the insulating sheath (myelin) on the axon of certain neurons
that serves to facilitate the rapid conduction of nerve impulses.
Myelin Sheath- allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells.
If myelin is damaged, these impulses slow down.
Schwann cells- play essential roles in the development, maintenance, function, and regeneration of
peripheral nerves.
 THE SPINAL CORD
 A column of nerve tissue that runs from the base of the skull down the center of the back.
 It is covered by three thin layers of protective tissue called membranes.
 The spinal cord and membranes are surrounded by the vertebrae (backbones).
 The spinal cord and the brain make up the central nervous system (CNS). Spinal cord nerves
carry messages between the brain and the rest of the body.

HOW DOES IT WORK?

 It connects your brain to your lower back.
 Your spinal cord carries nerve signals from your brain to your body and vice versa.
 These nerve signals help you feel sensations and move your body.
 The three primary roles of the spinal cord are to send motor commands from the brain to the
body, send sensory information from the body to the brain, and coordinate reflexes.

THE MAIN PARTS OF THE SPINAL CORD

 SPINAL NERVES
 Your spinal nerves send electrical signals between your brain, spinal cord, and the rest of
your body.
 These electrical nerve signals help you feel sensations (sensory nerve) and move your body
(motor nerves).
 spinal nerve is critical for its dermatome because it carries all the nerve signals traveling
between the dermatome and your brain. Usually, this is a two-way connection.

IMPORTANCE OF SPINAL NERVES

 Spinal nerves own a vital role in medicine, operating as the relay axons between the central
and peripheral nervous systems.
 They play a role in a full degree of clinical practice.
 Cutaneous innervation of the periphery maps into dermatomes, which are areas of skin
supplied by nerves arising from a single spinal root.

HOW DOES IT WORK?

 The spinal nerves exit the spinal canal through these gaps. Because the spinal nerves branch
off as they go down the spine, the spinal cord thins out at the lower end of the spine.
 carry electrical signals from the brain to muscles of the skeleton and internal organs via the
spinal cord.
 Similarly, they carry sensory information like touch, pressure, cold, warmth, pain, and other
sensations from the skin, muscles, joints, and internal organs to the brain via the spinal cord.
 MAIN PARTS OF THE SPINAL NERVE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
THE BRAIN
● The most complex organ of the human body.
● Boss of the body.
● The most important organ of the nervous system
● located in the head and protected inside the skull.

HOW DOES IT WORK?

- The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the body.
- Different signals control different process which the brain interprets. Some make you feel
tired, for example, while others make you feel pain.

MAIN PARTS OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTION

The brain can be divided into the cerebrum, brainstem and cerebellum.

Cerebrum- (front of brain) and the largest part of the brain.

- Comprises gray matter or the cerebral cortex and white matter at its center.
- The cerebrum initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature. This is also the
thinking part of the brain and controls muscles.

Cerebral cortex- Describe the outer gray matter covering of the cerebrum. Broken apart into 4 lobes,
Frontal, Parietal, Occipital and temporal lobes.
● Frontal- boss of the brain. (Emotional control)
 ● Parietal- sensation; reacting to environment.
● Occipital- Primarily Vision
● Temporal Lobe- Important in language, hearing and memory.

Brainstem- the middle of brain, connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. The brainstem includes
the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla.
● Midbrain- hearing, movement, calculating responses and environmental changes.
● Pons- enable a range of activities such as tear production, chewing, blinking, focusing vision,
balance, hearing and facial expression.
● Medulla- regulates many bodily activities such as breathing, blood flow and etc.

Cerebellum- “little brain”. Located at the back of the head, and its function is to control balance,
movement and coordination.

CRANIAL NERVES
- Nerves that originate from the brain or the brainstem.
- The dome of the skull.
- There are 12 nerves, called the “Cranial Nerves”
12 cranial nerves are numbered based on where they emerge, and rely information to/from various
parts of the body to the brain.

● CN1 -olfactory nerve, which allows for your sense of smell.

 ● CN2- The optic nerve governs eyesight.
● CN3- The oculomotor nerve.
● CN4- The trochlear nerve controls muscles in the eye.
● CN5-The trigeminal nerve. Allows the function of chewing muscles, and much more.
● CN6-The abducens nerve innervates some of the muscles in the eye.
● CN7-The facial nerve supports face movement, taste, glandular and other functions.
● CN8-The vestibulocochlear nerve facilitates balance and hearing.
● CN9-The glossopharyngeal nerve allows taste.
● CN10-The vagus nerve allows sensation around the ear and the digestive system.
● CN11-The accessory nerve innervates specific muscles in the head, neck and shoulder.
● CN12-The hypoglossal nerve supplies motor activity to the tongue.

MENINGES
- Greek for “membrane” refers to membranes that surround the brain and the spinal cord.

Dura Mater - Means “Hard mother”. The outermost layer of the meninges. Includes two layers the
periosteal layer and the meningeal layer.

Arachnoid Mater - is a thin, weblike layer of connective tissue that does not contain nerves or blood
vessels. Below the arachnoid mater is the cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF.

Pia mate - Latin word means “tender mother” is a thin membrane that hugs the surface of the brain
and follows its contours. The pia mater is rich with veins and arteries.
What is Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)?
• It is a clear, colorless, watery fluid that flows in and around your brain and spinal cord.

• It is slightly alkaline and is about 99 percent water. There are about 100 to 150 ml of CSF in
the normal adult human body.

• It produced by the choroid plexus which covers two literal ventricles, and the roof of the third
and fourth ventricles.

Why do we need a CSF analysis?

- Your health care provider may order a CSF analysis if you have

• Symptoms of an infection or bleeding in the brain or spinal cord

• Symptoms of an autoimmune disorder, such as multiple sclerosis (MS)

• Had a brain injury or an injury to your spinal cord

• Have cancer that may have spread to your central nervous system.

• Symptoms that may be from another central nervous system condition, such as headaches.

The CSF has many functions:

Buoyancy – the brain weighs ~1400g, but due to the presence of CSF creating a bath, it only has a
net weight of 50g.

Protection – CSF acts as a shock absorber preventing damage caused by the brain hitting the
cranium.

Homeostasis – regulates the distribution of metabolites surrounding the brain, keeping the external
environment stable.
Clearing waste – waste products produced by the brain cells are excreted into the CSF, which then
drains into the bloodstream.

Autonomic Nervous System

• It is regulating certain body processes, such as blood pressure and the rate of breathing.

• It is the part of the nervous system that supplies the internal organs, including the blood
vessels, stomach, intestine, liver, kidneys, bladder, genitals, lungs, pupils, etc.

• It also called the vegetative nervous system. It controls the involuntary functions and
influences the activity of internal organs.

The autonomic nervous system has two main divisions:

 Sympathetic - increases heart rate and the force of heart contractions and widens (dilates) the
airways to make breathing easier. It causes the body to release stored energy.

• Prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations—fight or flight

 Parasympathetic - conserves and restores. It slows the heart rate and decreases blood pressure.
It stimulates the digestive tract to process food and eliminate wastes. Energy from the processed
food is used to restore and build tissues.

• Controls body process during ordinary situations.

Affecting the peripheral nerves that automatically (without conscious effort) regulate body processes
(autonomic nerves).

• Causes include diabetes, amyloidosis, autoimmune disorders, cancer, excessive alcohol

consumption, and certain drugs.

• People may feel light-headed when they stand and have urination problems, constipation,
and vomiting, and men may have erectile dysfunction.

• Doctors do a physical examination and various tests to check for autonomic malfunction and
possible causes.

• The cause is corrected or treated if possible.

Function of the autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system controls internal body processes such as the following:

• Blood pressure
• Heart and breathing rates

• Body temperature

• Digestion

• Metabolism (thus affecting body weight)

Nervous system common disorder

1. Head Trauma

- refers to any damage to the scalp, skull and brain or caused by injury.

- Symptoms include nausea, unsteadiness, headaches or difficulty concentrating.

2. CVA (Stroke)

- A stroke also know as transient ischemic attack happens when blood flow to the brain is blocked.

- Symptoms include trouble speaking and understanding what others are saying, headache, problems
seeing in one or both eyes and trouble walking.

3. Alzheimer's dse

- Involves parts of the brain that control thought, memory, and language. It is not a normal part of
aging. Memory problems are typically one of the first warning signs of Alzheimer’s disease and
related dementias.

- Symptoms include memory loss, language loss, impaired judgement, and brain other changes.

4. Parkinson's dse

- Brain disorders that causes unintended or uncontrollable movements, such as shaking, stiffness, and
difficulty with valance and coordination.

- Symptoms usually begin gradually and worsen over time.

5. Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

- is a condition that can affect the brain and spinal cord, causing a wide range of potential

- Symptoms, including problems with vision, arm or leg movement, sensation or balance.

6. Epilepsy

- is a disorder of the brain characterized by repeated seizures. A seizure is usually defined as a

sudden alteration of behavior due to a temporary change in the electrical functioning of the brain.
-symptoms include uncontrollable jerking and shaking, called a "fit", collapsing and losing
awareness.

7. Dementia

- is a general term for loss of memory, language, problem-solving and other thinking abilities that are
severe enough to interfere with daily life. Alzheimer's is the most common cause of dementia.

- Symptoms include short-term memory,keeping track of a purse or wallet, paying bills,planning and
preparing meals ,remembering appointments, and traveling out of the neighborhood.

Disorders related to the nervous system

 Vascular disorders, such as stroke, transient ischemic attack (TIA), subarachnoid

hemorrhage, subdural hemorrhage and hematoma, and extradural hemorrhage.

 Infections, such as meningitis, encephalitis, polio, and epidural abscess.

 Structural disorders, such as brain or spinal cord injury, Bell's palsy, cervical spondylosis,
etc.

● Functional disorders, such as headache, epilepsy, dizziness, and neuralgia.

● Degeneration, such as Parkinson disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

(ALS), Huntington chorea, and Alzheimer disease.

Signs and symptoms of nervous system disorders:

● Persistent or sudden onset of a headache

● A headache that changes or is different

● Loss of feeling or tingling

● Weakness or loss of muscle strength

● Loss of sight or double vision

● Memory loss

● Impaired mental ability

● Lack of coordination

● Muscle rigidity
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