BIO PHYSIOPSYCHOLOGY
sexual arousal
Major Divisions Of The Nervous System
The vertebrate nervous system is composed of two
divisions: the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system
Roughly speaking, the central nervous system
(CNS) is the division of the nervous system located
within the skull and spine, and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS) is the division located
outside the skull and spine.
The central nervous system is composed of two
divisions: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is
the part of the CNS located in the skull; the spinal
cord is the part located in the spine.
The peripheral nervous system is also composed of
two divisions: the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system.
The somatic nervous system (SNS) is the part of
the PNS that interacts with the external
environment.
● It is composed of afferent nerves that carry
sensory signals from the skin, skeletal
muscles, joints, eyes, ears, and so on, to
the central nervous system and efferent
nerves that carry motor signals from the
central nervous system to the skeletal
muscles.
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of
the peripheral nervous system that regulates the
body’s internal environment.
● The autonomic nervous system is a
component of the peripheral nervous
system that regulates involuntary
physiologic processes including heart rate,
blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and
● It is composed of afferent nerves that carry
sensory signals from internal organs to the
CNS and efferent nerves that carry motor
signals from the CNS to internal organs.
You will not confuse the terms afferent and efferent
if you remember that many words that involve the
idea of going toward something—in this case, going
toward the CNS—begin with an a (e.g., advance,
approach, arrive) and that many words that involve
the idea of going away from something begin with
an e (e.g., exit, embark, escape).
The autonomic nervous system has two kinds of
efferent nerves: sympathetic nerves and
parasympathetic nerves.
● The sympathetic nerves are autonomic
motor nerves that project from the CNS in
the lumbar (small of the back) and thoracic
(chest area) regions of the spinal cord.
The parasympathetic nerves are those autonomic
motor nerves that project from the brain and sacral
(lower back) region of the spinal cord
The conventional view of the respective functions of
the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
stresses three important principles:
● (1) sympathetic nerves stimulate, organize,
and mobilize energy resources in
threatening situations, whereas
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parasympathetic nerves act to conserve
energy;
● (2) each autonomic target organ receives
opposing sympathetic and parasympathetic
input, and its activity is thus controlled by
relative levels of sympathetic and
parasympathetic activity; and
● (3) sympathetic changes are indicative of
psychological arousal, whereas
parasympathetic changes are indicative of
psychological relaxation.
Although these principles are generally correct,
there are significant qualifications and exceptions to
each of them
● The functions of the various cranial nerves
are commonly assessed by neurologists as
a basis for diagnosis. Because the functions
and locations of the cranial nerves are
specific, disruptions of particular cranial
nerve functions provide excellent clues
about the location and extent of tumors and
other kinds of brain pathology
Cells of the Nervous System
Most of the cells of the nervous system are of two
fundamentally different types:
neurons and glial cells.
neurons are cells that are specialized for the
reception, conduction, and transmission of
electrochemical signals. They come in an incredible
variety of shapes and sizes
classifying neurons based on the number of
processes (projections) emanating from their cell
bodies.
● A neuron with more than two processes
extending from its cell body is classified as
a multipolar neuron; most neurons are
multipolar.
● A neuron with one process extending from
its cell body is classified as a unipolar
neuron, and a neuron with two processes
extending from its cell body is classified as
a bipolar neuron.
● Neurons with a short axon or no axon at all
are called interneurons; their function is to
integrate neural activity within a single brain
structure, not to conduct signals from one
structure to another.
In the central nervous system, bundles of axons are
called tracts; in the peripheral nervous system, they
are called nerves.
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Glial Cells
Neurons are not the only cells in the nervous
system; there are about as many glial cells, or glia
(pronounced “GLEE-a”)
There are roughly two glia for every three neurons
in your brain
There are several kinds of glia.
● Oligodendrocytes, for example, are glial
cells with extensions that wrap around the
axons of some neurons of the central
nervous system.
○ These extensions are rich in myelin,
a fatty insulating substance, and the
myelin sheaths they form increase
the speed of axonal conduction.
A similar function is performed in the peripheral
nervous system by Schwann cells, a second class
of glia.
Microglia make up a third class of glia. Microglia
are smaller than other glial cells—thus their name.
They respond to injury or disease by multiplying,
engulfing cellular debris or even entire cells
Astrocytes constitute a fourth class of glia. They
are the largest glial cells, and they are so named
because they are star-shaped (astro means “star”).
Functions of Glial Cells
Structural Support: Glial cells provide structural
support for neurons, holding them in place and
maintaining the nervous tissue's overall structure.
Insulation: They produce and maintain the myelin
sheath, which insulates neuron axons and enables
faster and more efficient electrical signal
transmission.
Nutrient Supply: Glial cells help supply neurons
with essential nutrients, such as glucose and ions,
ensuring they have the resources needed for
proper function.
neuroanatomical directions
The vertebrate nervous system has three axes:
anterior–posterior, dorsal– ventral, and
medial–lateral
● anterior means toward the nose end (the
anterior end), and posterior means toward
the tail end (the posterior end)
○ same directions are sometimes
referred to as rostral and caudal,
respectively
● dorsal-means toward the surface of the
back or the top of the head (the dorsal
surface); ventral means toward the surface
of the chest or the bottom of the head (the
ventral surface)
● medial-means toward the midline of the
body, and lateral means away from the
midline toward the body’s lateral surfaces
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To circumvent this complication, the terms superior
and inferior are often used to refer to the top and
bottom of the primate head, respectively.
Proximal and distal are two other common
directional terms. In general, proximal means
“close,” and distal means “far.”

Specifically, with regard to the peripheral nervous

system, proximal means closer to the CNS, and
distal means farther from the CNS. Your shoulders
are proximal to your elbows, and your elbows are
proximal to your fingers.

Humans complicate this simple three-axis

(anterior– posterior, ventral–dorsal, medial–lateral)
system of neuroanatomical directions by insisting
on walking around on our hind legs.

This changes the orientation of our cerebral

hemispheres in relation to our spines and brain quick review
stems. myelin fatty substance
soma cell body
synapses gaps
glial cells the forgotten cells
synaptic vesicles neurotransmitter storage
astrocytes largest glial cells
ganglia PNS cluster bodies
oligodendrocytes CNS myelinators
dorsal top of head
posterior caudal

cross section of the spinal cord

notice that the top of the human head and the back
of the human body are both referred to as dorsal
even though they are in different directions, and the
bottom of the human head and the front of the
human body are both referred to as ventral even
though they are in different directions
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From anterior to posterior, the five swellings that
compose the developing brain at birth are the:
1. telencephalon,
2. the diencephalon,
3. the mesencephalon (or midbrain),
4. metencephalon,
5. myelencephalon (encephalon means “within
the head”)

inner H-shaped core of gray matter and a

surrounding area of white matter.

Gray matter is composed largely of cell bodies and

unmyelinated interneurons,

whereas white matter is composed largely of

myelinated axons.
(It is the myelin that gives the white matter its
glossy white sheen.)
The two dorsal arms of the spinal gray matter are
called the dorsal horns, and the two ventral arms
are called the ventral horns.
Five Major Divisions of the Brain
Pairs of spinal nerves are attached to the spinal
cord— one on the left and one on the right—at 31 telencephalon (the left and right cerebral
different levels of the spine. hemispheres) undergoes the greatest growth
Each of these 62 spinal nerves divides as it nears during development.
the cord and its axons are joined to the cord via
one of two roots: the dorsal root or the ventral root. The other four divisions of the brain are often
referred to collectively as the brain stem—the stem
Five Major Divisions of the Brain on which the cerebral hemispheres sit.

The myelencephalon is often referred to as the

First indications of the developing brain are three medulla
swellings that occur at the anterior end of this tube.
These three swellings eventually develop into the
adult forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain

Before birth, the initial three swellings in the neural

tube become five
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Myelencephalon
● medulla
● most posterior division of the brain
● composed largely of tracts carrying signals
between the rest of the brain and the body
Metencephalon
● interesting part is the reticular formation
● houses many ascending and descending
● named because of its netlike appearance
tracts and part of the reticular formation.
(reticulum means “little net”).
● These structures create a bulge, called the
● Sometimes, the reticular formation is
pons, on the brain stem’s ventral surface.
referred to as the reticular activating system
○ The pons is one major division of the
because parts of it seem to play a role in
metencephalon;
arousal.
○ the other is the cerebellum (little
● However, the various nuclei of the reticular
brain)
formation are involved in a variety of
functions—including sleep, attention,
cerebellum is the large, convoluted structure on
movement, the maintenance of muscle
the brain stem’s dorsal surface.
tone, and various cardiac, circulatory, and
● It is an important sensorimotor structure;
respiratory reflexes.
cerebellar damage eliminates the ability to
precisely control one’s movements and to
adapt them to changing conditions.
However, the fact that cerebellar damage also
produces a variety of cognitive deficits (e.g., deficits
in decision making and in the use of language)
suggests that the functions of the cerebellum are
not restricted to sensorimotor control
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The substantia nigra (black substance) and the red
nucleus are both important components of the
sensorimotor system.

Mesencephalon
● two divisions of the mesencephalon are the
tectum and the tegmentum
● tectum (roof) is the dorsal surface of the Diencephalon
midbrain. In mammals, the tectum is ● composed of two structures: the thalamus
composed of two pairs of bumps, the and the hypothalamus
colliculi (little hills). ● most well-understood thalamic nuclei are
● The posterior pair, called the inferior the sensory relay nuclei—nuclei that receive
colliculi, have an auditory function. signals from sensory receptors, process
● The anterior pair, called the superior them, and then transmit them to the
colliculi, have a visual-motor function; more appropriate areas of sensory cortex
specifically, to direct the body’s orientation ● hypothalamus is located just below the
toward or away from particular visual stimuli anterior thalamus (hypo means “below”)
● tegmentum is the division of the ● important role in the regulation of several
mesencephalon ventral to the tectum. motivated behaviors (e.g., eating, sleep,
● In addition to the reticular formation and and sexual behavior). It exerts its effects in
tracts of passage, the tegmentum contains part by regulating the release of hormones
three colorful structures of particular interest from the pituitary gland
to biopsychologists: the periaqueductal
gray, the substantia nigra, and the red
nucleus (see Figure 3.21).
● The periaqueductal gray is the gray matter
situated around the cerebral aqueduct, the
duct connecting the third and fourth
ventricles; it is of special interest because of
its role in mediating the analgesic
(pain-reducing) effects of opioid drugs.
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Diencephalon
● The pituitary gland can also be located
around this area
● two other structures appear on the inferior
surface of the hypothalamus: the optic
chiasm and the mammillary bodies.
● The optic chiasm is the point at which the
optic nerves from each eye come together
and then decussate (cross over to the other
side of the brain)
● The mammillary bodies, which are often
considered to be part of the hypothalamus,
are a pair of spherical nuclei located on the
inferior surface of the hypothalamus
Telencephalon
● largest division of the human brain,
mediates the brain’s most complex
functions
● voluntary movement, interprets sensory
input, and mediates complex cognitive
processes such as learning, speaking, and
problem solving
CEREBRAL CORTEX.
covered by a layer of tissue called the cerebral
cortex (cerebral bark).
cerebral cortex is deeply convoluted (furrowed)
convolutions have the effect of increasing the
amount of cerebral cortex without increasing the
overall volume of the brain
Because the cerebral cortex is mainly composed of
small, unmyelinated neurons, it is gray and is often
referred to as the gray matter.
In contrast, the layer beneath the cortex is mainly
composed of large myelinated axons, which are
white and often referred to as the white matter
Telencephalon
● The large furrows in a convoluted cortex are
called fissures, and the small ones are
called sulci (singular sulcus).
● The ridges between fissures and sulci are
called gyri (singular gyrus). It is apparent in
Figure 3.24 that the cerebral hemispheres
are almost completely separated by the
largest of the fissures: the longitudinal
fissure.
● The cerebral hemispheres are directly
connected by a few tracts spanning the
longitudinal fissure;
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● these hemisphere-connecting tracts are
called cerebral commissures. The largest
cerebral commissure, the corpus callosum
Telencephalon
● Two major landmarks on the lateral surface
of each hemisphere are the central fissure
and the lateral fissure.
● These fissures partially divide each
hemisphere into four lobes: the frontal lobe,
the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the
occipital lobe
● Among the largest gyri are the precentral
gyri (primary motor cortex), the postcentral
gyri (primary somatosensory cortex), and
the superior temporal gyri in the frontal,
parietal, and temporal lobes, respectively
cerebral lobes are not functional units
it is incorrect to think that a lobe is a functional unit,
having one set of functions
Brief Overview on the Functions of the Lobes
Frontal lobes
● When you plan a schedule, imagine the
future, or use reasoned arguments, these
two lobes do much of the work.
● One of the ways the frontal lobes seem to
do these things is by acting as short-term
storage sites, allowing one idea to be kept
in mind while other ideas are considered.
Motor cortex
● rearmost portion of each frontal lobe is a
motor cortex, which helps plan, control, and
execute voluntary movement, or intentional
movement, like moving your arm or kicking
a ball.
Parietal lobes
● When you enjoy a good meal—the taste,
aroma, and texture of the food—two
sections behind the frontal lobes called the
parietal lobes are at work. Reading and
arithmetic are also functions in the
repertoire of each parietal lobe.
Somatosensory cortex
● just behind the motor areas receive
information about temperature,
taste, touch, and movement from the
rest of the body.
Occipital lobes
● As you look at the words and pictures on
this page, two areas at the back of the brain
are at work. These lobes, called the
occipital lobes, process images from the
eyes and link that information with images
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stored in memory. Damage to the occipital
lobes can cause blindness.

Temporal lobes
● lie in front of the visual areas and nest
under the parietal and frontal lobes.
● Whether you appreciate symphonies or rock
music, your brain responds through the
activity of these lobes.
● At the top of each temporal lobe is an area
responsible for receiving information from
the ears.
● The underside of each temporal lobe plays
a crucial role in forming and retrieving
memories, including those associated with
Approximate Representation of Sensory and Motor
music.
Information in the Cortex
● Other parts of this lobe seem to integrate
memories and sensations of taste, sound,
sight, and touch.

Telencephalon
● occipital lobes is quite straightforward: We
humans rely heavily on the analysis of
visual input to guide our behavior, and the
occipital cortex and large areas of adjacent
cortex perform this function
● two large functional areas in each parietal
lobe:
● The postcentral gyrus analyzes sensations
from the body (e.g., touch),
● whereas the remaining areas of cortex in
the posterior parts of the parietal lobes play
roles in perceiving the location of both
objects and our own bodies and in directing
our attention
● The cortex of each temporal lobe has three
general functional areas:
● The superior temporal gyrus is involved in
hearing and language, the inferior temporal
cortex identifies complex visual patterns,
and the medial portion of temporal cortex
(which is not visible from the usual side
view) is important for certain kinds of
memory

Lastly, each frontal lobe has two distinct functional

areas:

● The precentral gyrus and adjacent frontal

cortex have a motor function,
● whereas the frontal cortex anterior to motor
cortex performs complex cognitive
functions, such as planning response
sequences, evaluating the outcomes of
BIO PHYSIOPSYCHOLOGY
potential patterns of behavior, and major structures of the limbic system include
assessing the significance of the behavior of the:
others 1. amygdala,
2. the fornix,
3. the cingulate cortex,
4. and the septum,
5. the mammillary bodies
6. and the hippocampus

Limbic System

1. amygdala—the almond-shaped nucleus in

the anterior temporal lobe (amygdala means
“almond”)

● Posterior to the amygdala is the

hippocampus, which runs beneath the
● The hippocampus is located at the medial
thalamus in the medial temporal lobe.
edge of the cerebral cortex as it folds back
●
on itself in the medial temporal lobe (see
● The cingulate cortex is the large strip of
Figure 3.24).
cortex in the cingulate gyrus on the medial
● This folding produces a shape that is, in
surface of the cerebral hemispheres, just
cross section, somewhat reminiscent of a
superior to the corpus callosum; it encircles
seahorse (hippocampus means “sea
the dorsal thalamus (cingulate means
horse”).
“encircling”).
● The hippocampus plays a major role in
● The fornix, the major tract of the limbic
some kinds of memory
system, also encircles the dorsal thalamus;
●
● it leaves the dorsal end of the hippocampus
and sweeps forward in an arc coursing
Limbic System and the Basal Ganglia
along the superior surface of the third
● There are several large subcortical nuclear
ventricle and terminating in the septum and
groups that are considered part of either the
the mammillary bodies (fornix means “arc”)
limbic system or the basal ganglia system.
● septum is a midline nucleus located at the
● It is not entirely clear exactly what these
anterior tip of the cingulate cortex.
hypothetical systems do, exactly which
●
structures should be included in them, or
even whether it is appropriate to view them
The functions of the hippocampus, the
as unitary systems.
hypothalamus and the amygdala have been
● concepts of limbic system and basal ganglia
investigated more than those of the other limbic
system provide a useful means of
structures.
conceptualizing the organization of several
subcortical structures
● As stated previously, the hippocampus
● limbic system is involved in the regulation of
plays a role in certain forms of memory,
motivated behaviors—including the four F’s
● and the hypothalamus is involved in a
of motivation: fleeing, feeding, fighting, and
variety of motivated behaviors such as
sexual behavior (fucking)
eating, sleep, and sexual behavior.
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● The amygdala, on the other hand, is
involved in emotion.

Basal Ganglia
● The basal ganglia play a role in the
performance of voluntary motor responses
and decision making
● pathway that projects to the striatum from
the substantia nigra of the midbrain:
Parkinson’s disease, a disorder
characterized by rigidity, tremors, and
poverty of voluntary movement, is
associated with the deterioration of this
pathway
● nucleus accumbens, which is in the medial
portion of the ventral striatum. The nucleus
accumbens is thought to play a role in the
rewarding effects of addictive drugs and
other reinforcers.