Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 .

Chapter 2

CHAPTER 2 : BODY COORDINATION

2.1 Body Coordination
1. Body coordination:
• Working together of different parts of the body so that the body can carry out an activity or
function correctly and efficiently.
• Our reactions / responses towards stimuli from the environment and our body.
2. Body coordination is controlled by two systems in the body:
• Nervous system
• Endocrine system
3. Importance of body coordination:
a) Enables the body to carry out the necessary activities.
b) Enables us to detect changes in the environment and take necessary action.
c) Enables us to develop good body posture.
d) Controls all the chemical and physiological functions in the body.

2.2 The Human Nervous System

A. The Nervous System and Its Function

Human Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic Nervous Autonomic

Brain Spinal Cord
System Nervous System

Nerves from Nerves from

Cranial nerves Spinal nerves
internal organs glands

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 2

Cranial Brain Central

Somatic nerves
nervous
nervous system
system Spinal Spinal
nerves cord
Peripheral
nervous
system

1. The human nervous system is divided into two main parts:

a) Central nervous system
b) Peripheral nervous system
2. Central nervous system:
a) Brain
• Protected by cranium (skull) and meninges (membrane)
• Fluid between the meninges protects the brain from shock as it can absorb shock.
• Controls all actions
b) Spinal cord
• Enclosed within the backbone.
• Shaped rather like an H.
• Consists of white matter (nerve fibres) on the outer side and grey matter (cell bodies) on the
inner side.
• Controls reflex action.
3. Peripheral nervous system:
a) Somatic nervous system
• Consists of cranial nerves (nerves from the eyes, ears, nose and tongue) and spinal nerves
(nerves from the limbs, abdomen and the skin).
• Controls voluntary actions
b) Autonomic nervous system
• Consists of nerves from the internal organs and glands.
• Controls involuntary action.

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 2

2.3 Nervous Coordination

A. Nervous Coordination Pathway

Stimuli Receptors Sensory neurones Central Nervous System

Responses Effectors Motor neurones

1. Stimuli – light, touch, taste, sound, smell

2. Receptors
a) Detect stimuli and produce impulses
b) sensory organs – examples: eye, skin, tongue, ear, nose
3. Effectors
a) Produce responses when receive impulses
b) examples: muscles, glands

B. Neurones – Structure and Functions

1. Neurones
a) basic unit of the nervous system
b) function – receive and transmit nervous impulses
2. Three types of neurones:

Type of neurones Function

Sensory neurone
Transmit impulse from the receptor (sensory
organs) to the central nervous system (brain
or spinal cord).

Relay neurone

Transmit impulse from the sensory neurone

to the motor neurone.

Motor neurone

Transmit impulse from the central nervous

system to the effectors (muscles or glands).

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 2

3. Function of each part of the neurone:

Parts of the neurone Function

Receptor Receives stimuli from the environment.
Dendrite Transmits impulses to the cell body via dendrons.
Dendron Transmits impulses to the cell body.
Nucleus and Cell body Controls all the activities of the neurone.
Axon Transmits impulses away from the cell body to an effector.
Effector Carry out responses.
• Protects the axons and the dendrons.

Myelin Sheath • Speeds up the transmission of impulses.

• Supplies nutrients to the axons and dendrons.

4. How neurones are linked with one another to transmit impulses:

Synapse

Synapse
Function: Allow impulses to move in one
direction only.

C. Reflex Action
1. Quick, automatic response to a stimulus. // Protective actions.
2. Importance / function – to protect us from injury.
3. Controlled by – spinal cord
4. Examples of reflex action:
• Coughing
• Sneezing
• Knee-jerk reflex
• Blinking the eyes to avoid an object entering an eye
• Moving away of the hand when touches a hot kettle
• Jumping up when stepping onto a sharp nail
• Reducing the size of pupils when going out into bright sunlight

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 2

5. Nervous pathway of a reflex action – reflex arc

White matter
3 Synapse
2 Sensory neurone
Spinal
cord

4 Relay neurone
6 Grey matter
Effector
5 Motor neurone
1 Receptor

6. Knee-jerk reflex: relay neurone is not invloved

2.4 Proprioceptors
1. Proprioceptors – stretch receptors
2. Places found in the body – muscles, tendons, ligaments
3. Sensitive to / stimulated by stretching or compression of
the muscles.
4. Function / Importance:
a) Enable us to carry out muscular activities without having to watch our limbs.
b) Maintain body balance.
5. Examples of muscular activities involving proprioceptors:
a) Playing guitar.
b) Playing piano.
c) Buttoning a shirt.
d) Typing a letter.
e) Walking on a tight rope.
f) Riding a bicycle.
g) Estimating weight using the palms.
6. Kinaesthetic sense:
a) Help us to detect position and movement of the limbs by using proprioceptors.
b) Use by blind people.

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 2

2.5 The Human Brain and Its Complexity

A. Human Brain

1. Cerebrum
Function: Controls, memory,
thinking and voluntary action.
2. Cerebellum
Function: Controls body balance.
3. Medulla oblongata
Function: Controls involuntary Spinal cord
action. Function: Controls reflex action.

1. Surface of the cerebrum and cerebellum are folded – to increase the surface area to hold more
neurones.
2. Injury to the following part will cause:
a) Cerebrum – lost of memory, lost control of voluntary action, paralysis
b) Cerebellum – lost body balance
c) Medulla oblongata – lost control of involuntary action
d) Spinal cord – lost control of reflex action

B. Voluntary Action and Involuntary Action

1. Voluntary action
a) Actions that can be controlled by our will.
b) Examples: dancing, writing, playing basketball
2. Involuntary action
a) Actions that cannot be controlled by our will.
b) Take place continuously and automatically in the body, without us being consciously aware.
c) Examples: beating of the heart, sweating, digestion of food, breathing, peristalsis
3. Differences between voluntary action and involuntary action:

Differences Voluntary action Involuntary action

Controlled by Cerebrum Medulla oblongata
According to will Yes No
Part of the body taking action Skeletal muscles Autonomic organs
Can be quickened or slowed Fast and cannot be controlled by
Speed of action
down will
Awareness Aware Unaware

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 2

2.6 Hormonal Coordination

A. Hormones
1. Organic chemical substances produced by the endocrine glands (ductless glands)
2. Produced in very small amounts.
3. Secreted directly into the bloodstream.
4. No longer useful hormones are broken down by the liver and excreted through the kidneys.

B. Endocrine System

Pituitary gland

Thyroid
gland

Pancreas

Adrenal
gland

Testis Ovary

Endocrine
Function Lack of Hormones Excess of Hormones
Gland
1. Pituitary • As master gland –control the
gland production of hormones by other
(brain) endocrine glands.
• Hormone: Growth hormone – • Stunted growth. • Gigantism.
Control growth.
• Hormone: Antidiuretic hormone • Not enough water • Plenty of water
(ADH) – Increase reabsorption of reabsorbed by the reabsorbed by the
water in the kidneys. kidneys. kidneys.
2. Thyroid • Hormone: Thyroxine • Goitre. • High metabolic
gland • Control metabolic rate. • Low metabolic rate.
(neck) • Control physical and mental growth. rate.
• Require iodine from seafood.

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 2

Endocrine
Function Lack of Hormones Excess of Hormones
Gland
3. Pancreas • Hormone: Insulin, Glucagon • Diabetes. • Lack of blood
(stomach) • Control the glucose level in the • Increase in blood glucose.
blood. glucose.
• Insulin – convert excess glucose into
glycogen for storage.
• Glucagon – convert glycogen into
glucose when blood glucose level is
low.
4. Adrenal • Hormone: Adrenaline • Low capacity to • High blood
gland • Increase heartbeat, breathing, overcome stress. pressure.
(kidney) blood pressure and blood glucose • Addison disease • High level of
level during emergency. (increase loss of glucose and salt in
• Prepare the body to face salt and water the blood).
emergency. from body).
• Controls the salt level in the blood.
5. Testis • Hormone: Testosterone • Male secondary • Highly masculine.
(scrotum) • Control male sex organ and sexual
secondary sexual characteristics. characteristics
• Example: control production of poorly developed.
sperm.
6. Ovary • Hormone: Oestrogen, Progesterone • Female secondary • Highly feminine.
(uterus) • Control female sex organ and sexual • Hastens changes
secondary sexual characteristics. characteristics in the uterus wall
• Example: control menstrual cycle. poorly developed. after ovulation.
• Irregular
menstrual cycle.
• Miscarriage.

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 2

2.7 Coordination between The Nervous System and The Endocrine System
1. Differences between the nervous coordination and hormonal coordination:

Differences Nervous Coordination Hormonal Coordination

Components Brain, spinal cord, neurones Endocrine (ductless) glands
Message sent in the form of Impulses Hormones
Impulse is sent through Neurones Blood
Target area Small / limited / specific Large / widepsread
Speed of impulse transmission Fast Slow
Response Immediate Slow
Length of effect Short while Long time

2. Coordination between nervous system and endocrine system:

Condition – A person is chased by a dog.

Stimuli Receptors Brain Effector Responses

• Muscle • Contract
• Adrenal • Secrete
gland adrenaline
• Runs away

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 2

2.8 Effects of Drug Abuse on Body Coordination and Health

1. Drugs – chemical substances which affect a person’s mind, body functions, emotion and conduct.
2. Types of drugs:

Groups Examples Effects

a) Depressant Barbiturates, Heroin, Morphine Slow down / calm down the reaction of a person.
b) Stimulant Nicotine, Marijuana, Increase the body’s activities.
Amphetamine

c) Pain killer Heroin, Morphine Reduce pain and anxiety.

d) Hallucinogen LSD, Ganja Cause hallucination.

3. Drug abuse – using of drugs for non-medical and unhealthy reasons.

(eg: to feel ‘high’ & more daring, become more alert & active, escape from worries and stress, increase
stamina & power, increase sexual desire & performance)
4. Drug addiction – a condition when a drug abuser craves for a higher and higher dose of the drug.
5. If the drug is not available, drug abusers suffer from withdrawal symptoms:
a) Vomiting
b) Shivering
c) Diarrhoea
d) Pain in the abdomen and limbs
e) Hallucination

2.9 Effects of Alcohol on Body Coordination and Health

1. Ethanol – alcohol that can be drunk and present in alcoholic drinks.
2. Effects of alcohol on body coordination:
a) Eases tension (alcohol is a depressant).
b) Slows down the activity of the central nervous system.
c) Loses body balance (alcohol affects the cerebellum).
3. Effects of alcohol on health:
a) Liver cirrhosis (hardening of the liver).
b) Blood vessels on the skin dilate.
c) Gastroenteritis.
d) Anaemia.
e) Numbness in the limbs.
f) Addiction.

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 2

2.10 Importance of a Healthy and Sound Mind

1. Mind – ability to think, feel, judge and imagine things.
2. Factors that affect the mind:
a) Hormonal imbalance
b) Excessive drinking of alcohol
c) Drug abuse
d) Mental stress
e) Brain injury
3. A healthy and sound mind enables a person to think clearly, reason intelligently and act wisely.
4. Characteristics of healthy mind and unhealthy mind:

Characteristics of healthy mind Characteristics of unhealthy mind

Independent, cheerful Dependent on others, aggressive
Positive attitudes, optimistic Negative attitudes, pessimistic
Thinks rationally Thinks irrationally
Responsible in work Not responsible in work
Shows affection and love Lacks affection and love
Able to control his feelings Unable to control his feelings

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