Name : Shaiza Iftikhar

Subject: Biological basis of behaviour

Topic: Neuron and Glial cells

A neuron, also known as a nerve cell, is the fundamental unit

of the nervous system in animals, including humans. It is a
specialized cell that plays a vital role in transmitting and
processing information within the brain, spinal cord, and the
rest of the nervous system.

The human nervous system

In humans and other vertebrates, the nervous system can be
broadly divided into two sections: the central nervous
system and the peripheral nervous system

 Central nervous system:

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and

the spinal cord. It is in the CNS that all of the analysis of
information takes place

 Peripheral nervous system:

The peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of

the neurons and parts of neurons found outside of the CNS,
includes sensory neurons and motor neurons. Sensory
neurons bring signals into the CNS, and motor neurons carry
signals out of the CNS.
 Central nervous system: portions of the nervous system in
the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system: portions of the nervous

system outside the brain and spinal cord.

The cell bodies of some PNS neurons, such as the motor

neurons that control skeletal muscle (the type of muscle
found in your arm or leg), are located in the CNS. These
motor neurons have long extensions (axons) that run from
the CNS all the way to the muscles they connect with
(innervate). The cell bodies of other PNS neurons, such as
the sensory neurons that provide information about touch,
position, pain, and temperature, are located outside of the
CNS, where they are found in clusters known as ganglia.

The axons of peripheral neurons that travel a common route

are bundled together to form nerves.

Types of neurons

1. Sensory Neurons or Afferent Neurons

2. Motor Neurons or Efferent Neurons
3. Interneurons

Based on their roles, the neurons found in the human

nervous system can be divided into three classes: sensory
neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.

 Sensory neurons
Sensory neurons get information about what's going on
inside and outside of the body and bring that information
 into the CNS so it can be processed. For instance, if you
picked up a hot coal, sensory neurons with endings in your
fingertips would convey the information to your CNS that it
was really hot.

 Motor neurons
Motor neurons get information from other neurons and
convey commands to your muscles, organs and glands. For
instance, if you picked up a hot coal, it motor neurons
innervating the muscles in your fingers would cause your
hand to let go.

 Interneurons
Interneurons, which are found only in the CNS, connect one
neuron to another. They receive information from other
neurons (either sensory neurons or interneurons) and
transmit information to other neurons (either motor
neurons or interneurons).

For instance, if you picked up a hot coal, the signal from the
sensory neurons in your fingertips would travel to
interneurons in your spinal cord. Some of these
interneurons would signal to the motor neurons controlling
your finger muscles (causing you to let go), while others
would transmit the signal up the spinal cord to neurons in
the brain, where it would be perceived as pain.

Type of
Description Functions
Neurons based
on functions

1. Responsible for
1. Nerve cells are
transmitting signals
activated by the signals
from receptor organs
Sensory from the environment
to the brain.
Neurons and carry through
2. Help us in taste,
receptors to the central
smell, hear, see, and
nervous system.
feel.
1. Play a significant
1. The nerve cells that
role in the movement
transmit information
Motor of the body.
from the nervous
Neurons 2. Communicate with
system to the receptor
muscles, organs, and
organs
glands.
1. Also known as 1. Provide a neural
connector neurons. circuit that enables the
2. Interneurons allow flow of information
Interneurons communication between the sensory
between sensory or neuron, the motor
motor neurons with neuron, and the
the nervous system. nervous system.
Interneurons are the most numerous class of neurons and
are involved in processing information, both in simple reflex
circuits (like those triggered by hot objects) and in more
complex circuits in the brain.

Neurons are of four types based on the structure:

 1. Bipolar Neurons
2. Multipolar Neurons
3. Unipolar Neurons
4. Pseudo unipolar Neurons

 Purkinje Cells: Purkinje cells are a type of large and

branched neuron found in the cerebellum. They are
involved in motor coordination and learning, receiving
input from other parts of the brain and conveying output
to the deep cerebellar nuclei.
 Bipolar Neurons: Bipolar neurons have two processes
extending from the cell body—one axon and one dendrite.
They are found in specialized sensory organs, such as the
retina of the eye and the olfactory epithelium in the nose.
 Unipolar (Pseudounipolar) Neurons: Unipolar
neurons have a single process that branches into two.
One branch acts as a dendrite, receiving sensory
information, while the other acts as an axon, transmitting
signals to the central nervous system. They are primarily
involved in transmitting sensory information from the
peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system.
 Multipolar Neurons: Multipolar neurons are the most
common type of neurons in the central nervous system.
They have multiple dendrites and a single axon extending
from the cell body. Most interneurons and motor neurons
are multipolar.

Types of a
neuron based
Description Functions
on the
structure
Bipolar 1. Have two extensions, 1. Exclusive sensory neurons
Neurons one dendrite, and one that help in the transmission
 axon. Present in the retina of sensations.
of the eye and sense
organs.
1. Have one axon and 1. Helps in transmitting
Multipolar several dendrites. Present information from other
Neurons in the central nervous neurons to a different part of
system. the body.
1. Have only one axon. 1. Helps in transmitting
Unipolar
Present in the retina of information directly to the
Neurons
the eye. central nervous system.
1. Have an axon that separates
1. Have characteristics of
into two projections; one of
Pseudo both unipolar and bipolar
them receives sensory
unipolar neurons. Sensory neurons
information, and another
Neurons are pseudo unipolar
transmits this information to
neurons.
the spinal cord.

If you think about the roles of the three classes of neurons,

you can make the generalization that all neurons have three
basic functions. These are to:

1.Receive signals (or information).

2.Integrate incoming signals (to determine whether or not

the information should be passed along).

3.Communicate signals to target cells (other neurons or

muscles or glands).
4.These neuronal functions are reflected in the anatomy of
the neuron.

Neurons, like other cells, have a cell body (called the soma).
The nucleus of the neuron is found in the soma. Neurons
need to produce a lot of proteins, and most neuronal
proteins are synthesized in the soma as well.

Various processes (appendages or protrusions) extend

from the cell body. These include many short, branching
processes, known as dendrites, and a separate process that
is typically longer than the dendrites, known as the axon.

The first two neuronal functions, receiving and processing

incoming information, generally take place in the dendrites
and cell body. Incoming signals can be either excitatory –
which means they tend to make the neuron fire (generate an
electrical impulse) – or inhibitory – which means that they
tend to keep the neuron from firing.

Most neurons receive many input signals throughout their

dendritic trees. A single neuron may have more than one set
of dendrites, and may receive many thousands of input
signals. Whether or not a neuron is excited into firing an
impulse depends on the sum of all of the excitatory and
inhibitory signals it receives. If the neuron does end up firing,
the nerve impulse, or action potential, is conducted down
the axon.

Structure of a neuron. At one end of the cell body (and

indeed, around most of its periphery) are many small,
branching protrusions called dendrites. Extending from the
other end of the cell body at a location called the axon
hillock is the axon, a long, thin, tube-like protrusion. The
axon is wrapped in myelin, which ensheathes some sections
but leaves sections of the axon bare between the sheathed
portions.

At its far end, the axon splits up into many axon terminal.
Each forms a synapse with a dendrite or cell body of another
neuron. The cell to which the axon terminal belongs
(sending cell) is called the presynaptic cell, while the cell to
which the dendrite or cell body belongs (receiving cell) is
called the postsynaptic cell. There is a space between the
two cells, across which they communicate. When an action
potential arrives at the axon terminal, it triggers the release
of molecules of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic cell.
These diffuse to to the other side of the synapse and bind to
receptors on the membrane of the postsynaptic cell.

Axons differ from dendrites in several ways.

1. The dendrites tend to taper and are often covered with

little bumps called spines. In contrast, the axon tends to
stay the same diameter for most of its length and doesn't
have spines.

2. The axon arises from the cell body at a specialized area

called the axon hillock.

3. Finally, many axons are covered with a special insulating

substance called myelin, which helps them convey the
nerve impulse rapidly. Myelin is never found on
dendrites.
4. Towards its end, the axon splits up into many branches
and develops bulbous swellings known as axon
terminals (or nerve terminals). These axon terminals
make connections on target cells.

Neuron-to-neuron connections are made onto the dendrites

and cell bodies of other neurons. These connections, known
as synapses, are the sites at which information is carried
from the first neuron, the presynaptic neuron, to the target
neuron (the postsynaptic neuron). The synaptic
connections between neurons and skeletal muscle cells are
generally called neuromuscular junctions, and the
connections between neurons and smooth muscle cells or
glands are known as neuroeffector junctions.

At most synapses and junctions, information is transmitted

in the form of chemical messengers
called neurotransmitters. When an action potential travels
down an axon and reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the
release of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic cell.
Neurotransmitter molecules cross the synapse and bind to
membrane receptors on the postsynaptic cell, conveying an
excitatory or inhibitory signal.

Thus, the third basic neuronal function – communicating

information to target cells – is carried out by the axon and
the axon terminals. Just as a single neuron may receive
inputs from many presynaptic neurons, it may also make
synaptic connections on numerous postsynaptic neurons via
different axon terminals.

Most neurons follow the same general structural plan, but

the structure of individual neurons varies and is adapted to
 the specific function a given neuron (or class of neurons)
needs to carry out. Different types of neurons show great
diversity in size and shape, which makes sense given the
tremendous complexity of the nervous system and the huge
number of different tasks it performs.

For instance, specialized neurons called Purkinje cells are

found in a region of the brain known as the cerebellum.
Purkinje cells have a highly complex dendritic tree that
allows them to receive – and integrate – an enormous
number of synaptic inputs, as shown above. Other types of
neurons in the cerebellum can also be recognized by their
distinctive shapes.

Similarly, neurons can vary greatly in length. While many

neurons are tiny, the axons of the motor neurons that extend
from the spinal cord to innervate your toes can be a meter
long (or longer, in basketball players like Michael Jordan,
LeBron James, or Yao Ming)!

Another example of diversity in form comes from sensory

neurons: in many sensory neurons, the morphological
distinction between axon and dendrites is blurred. A single
myelinated process leaves the cell body and splits in two,
sending one branch to the spinal cord to communicate
information and the second to sensory receptors in the
periphery to receive information.

Neurons possess several key characteristics that make them

unique and vital for the proper functioning of the nervous
system. Here are some of the essential neuronal
characteristics:

.
1. Excitability: Neurons are highly excitable cells, meaning
they can respond to various stimuli by generating
electrical signals called action potentials. These stimuli
can be chemical, electrical, or mechanical in nature. When
a neuron is appropriately stimulated, it depolarizes,
allowing ions to flow in and out of the cell, leading to the
propagation of the action potential along its axon.
2. Conductivity: Neurons have specialized extensions
called axons, which are responsible for conducting the
electrical impulses generated in the cell body. These
impulses can travel long distances through the axon,
allowing communication between distant parts of the
nervous system.
3. Synaptic Transmission: Neurons communicate with
each other and with other cells (muscles, glands, etc.)
through synapses. Synapses are specialized junctions
between the axon terminals of one neuron and the
dendrites of another neuron or the target cell. When an
action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the
release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft,
which bind to receptors on the target cell, transmitting
the signal.
4. Plasticity: Neurons exhibit plasticity, which refers to
their ability to change and adapt in response to
experience, learning, and environmental influences. This
adaptability allows the nervous system to reorganize
neural connections and modify synaptic strength, which
is crucial for processes such as learning and memory.
5. Diversity: There are many types of neurons, each with
unique shapes, functions, and connections. For example,
sensory neurons convey information from sensory
receptors to the central nervous system, motor neurons
transmit signals from the central nervous system to
muscles and glands, and interneurons facilitate
communication between other neurons. The diverse
array of neurons allows the nervous system to process
information in complex and specialized ways.
 6. Longevity: Neurons are typically long-lived cells that can
last a lifetime. Unlike many other cells in the body,
neurons do not undergo cell division to replace
themselves. However, they can still repair and regenerate
to some extent, especially in response to injury or
damage.
7. High Metabolic Rate: Neurons have high energy
demands due to their active involvement in transmitting
electrical signals and maintaining ion gradients across
their cell membranes. Consequently, they require a
constant supply of oxygen and glucose to sustain their
function.
8. Nerve Impulse Transmission: Neurons transmit
information through electrical impulses, called nerve
impulses or action potentials. These electrical signals are
generated when the neuron's membrane potential
changes, and they allow rapid and precise
communication within the nervous system.

Neural Communication:
An animal receives thousands of stimuli simultaneously. The
survival depends on identifying and responding to these
stimuli effectively. In most of the animals, neural
communication involves four processes. Whether a stimulus
originates externally or internally, information must be
received, transmitted to the CNS, integrated and transmitted
to muscle or glands to carry out some action, the actual
response.
 1. Reception: Reception is the process of detecting a
stimulus by neurons or sensory receptors present in
sensory organs like skin, eyes, ear, etc.
2. Transmission: Transmission is the process of sending
signals to and fro from a neuron to another neuron or
from neuron to muscles or glands
3. Integration: Integration involves sorting and
interpreting incoming sensory information and
determining the appropriate response
4. Action or response: The actual response to the
stimulus by muscles or gland
In summary, information flows through the nervous system

in the following sequence:

Conduction Of A Nerve Impulse

 In the resting state, when a neuron is not conducting an

impulse, the neuron membrane is in the polarised state.
This is due to the following reasons:
  The difference in the concentration of specific ions
across the plasma membrane, inside the cell and in
extracellular fluid
 Selective permeability of the plasma membrane for
different ions
 At the resting state, the membrane has 100 times more
permeability to K+ ions as compared to Na+
 The membrane is impermeable to negatively charged
proteins present in the axoplasm
As a result, at the resting state, potassium ion (K+)
concentration inside the axon in axoplasm is more compared
to outside the cell and sodium ion (Na+) concentration is
more outside

 The electric charge inside the cell is more negative than

the charge of the extracellular fluid and membrane is
said to be polarised
 Due to the difference in electric charge across the
plasma membrane, there exists a potential difference
across the plasma membrane
 The membrane potential at the resting state is
called resting potential
 The neuron has a resting potential of -70mV
 The resting membrane potential depends mainly on the
diffusion of ions down the concentration gradient
 Neurons have three types of ion channels: passive ion
channels, voltage-gated channels and chemically
activated ion channels
 Ion channels and pump maintain the resting potential
of neurons
 These pumps require ATP to pump Na+ and K+ against
their concentration and electrical gradients
 Sodium potassium pump transports 3 Na+ outwards
for 2 K+ into the cell
Neurons are excitable cells. When an electrical, chemical or
mechanical stimulus is applied at a site A, voltage-activated
Na+ channels open, increasing the permeability of the
membrane for Na+ ions. There is a rapid influx of Na+ inside
the neuron, which results in the reversal of polarity at the
site A, i.e. the outer membrane becomes negatively charged
and the inner membrane becomes positively charged. The
membrane is said to be depolarised.
When a stimulus is strong enough, a rapid large change in
membrane potential occurs, depolarising the membrane to a
critical point known as the threshold level.
The electric potential difference at that site A is called
the action potential or nerve impulse.
All cells can generate graded potentials, but only neurons,
muscle cells and a few cells of the endocrine and immune
systems can generate action potentials.
When depolarisation is greater than -55mV, the threshold
level is reached and an action potential is generated.

An action potential is self-propagating.

An action potential is an all-or-none response and no
variation exists in the strength of a single impulse. The
intensity of sensation depends on the number of neurons
stimulated and on their frequency of discharge.
Action potential or nerve impulse is an electrical signal that
travels rapidly down the axon into the synaptic terminals.
At site B, ahead of where the action potential is generated
(site A), the membrane is polarised, i.e. negatively charged
inside and positively charged outside so the current flows
from A to B at the inner surface and from B to A on the outer
surface. This results in the reversal of polarity and the action
potential or nerve impulse is generated at site B. The
conduction of impulse throughout the length of the axon is
the result of a repeated sequence of these steps.
Depolarisation is very rapid so the conduction of nerve
impulse along the entire length of axon occurs in a fraction
of second.
After a certain period (milliseconds) membrane again
becomes impermeable to Na+ as Na+ channels close. Voltage
activated K+ channels open resulting in diffusion of
K+ outside the membrane and the resting potential is
restored. This is called repolarisation.
A wave of depolarisation moves down the membrane of
axon and the normal polarised state is quickly re-established
behind, i.e. known as repolarisation. The membrane resting
potential is restored and the membrane once more becomes
responsive to further stimulation. Most neurons can
transmit several hundred impulses per second.
In summary, conduction of impulse along the axon proceeds
as follows:

A nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another

through junction called synapses. The membrane of the
presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron make a synapse.
Synapse can be between two neurons or between a neuron
and effector such as neuron and a muscle cell.
Conduction ends at the axon terminals and
neurotransmission begins. At the axon terminal, the neuron
sends the signal to other neurons.
Signals across synapses can be electrical or chemical.
At the electrical synapse, an electrical signal is generated
and at the chemical synapse, neurotransmitters are secreted.

At electrical synapses, the membrane of pre and

postsynaptic neuron are in very close proximity and
form gap junctions (<2 nm).
The interiors of the two cells are physically connected by
a protein channel.
The transmission of impulse is similar to conduction along a
single axon.
Electrical synapses let ion pass from one cell to another
resulting in rapidly transmitting an impulse from
presynaptic to the postsynaptic neuron.
Electrical synapse transmits signal much faster than
chemical synapse, but they are rare in humans.
The escape responses of many animals involve electrical
synapses. E.g. the “tail-flick” escape response of the crayfish.

The majority of synapses are chemical synapses.

A fluid-filled space between the pre and postsynaptic neuron
is called synaptic cleft (~20 nm).
When an action potential reaches the end of the axon, it
cannot jump the gap because depolarisation is the property
of the plasma membrane.
The electrical signal has to be converted into a chemical
one. Neurotransmitters are involved in the transmission at
these synapses.
Axon terminal consists of synaptic vesicles containing
neurotransmitters. When an action potential (impulse)
reaches axon terminal it stimulates synaptic vesicles to
release neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft.

When an action potential reaches the synaptic

terminal, voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open. Ca2+ ion
from extracellular fluid enters the synaptic terminal
inducing synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic
membrane and release neurotransmitters by exocytosis.
These neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors present
on the dendrites or cell body of postsynaptic neurons or on
the plasma membrane of the effector cells.
This binding triggers the opening of specific gated ion
channels, resulting in changes in the permeability of the
postsynaptic membrane.
When postsynaptic neuron reaches its threshold level of
depolarisation, it transmits an action potential.
The new potential developed may be either excitatory or
inhibitory.
When the depolarisation initiates transmitting a neural
impulse it is known as excitatory, whereas when the
membrane potential becomes more negative than the
resting potential, it is said to be hyperpolarised, it
decreases the ability of the neuron to generate nerve
impulse and known as inhibitory.
Membrane potential that brings the neuron closer to firing is
called an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).
Unlike action potentials, postsynaptic potentials are graded
responses.
Some neurotransmitter-receptor combinations
hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane. A potential
change in this direction is called an inhibitory postsynaptic
potential (IPSP).
Excess neurotransmitters from synaptic cleft have to be
removed in order to quickly repolarise the postsynaptic
membrane. It is either degraded into its component or
transported back into synaptic terminals, the process known
as reuptake. These are repackaged in the vesicles and
recycled.
Many drugs such as antidepressants inhibit the reuptake of
neurotransmitters.
In summary, neurotransmission across synapses has the
following steps:

Many chemicals are found to act as a neurotransmitter. They

can be broadly classified into various chemical groups:
 Acetylcholine

 Released from motor neurons and by some

neurons in the brain and autonomic nervous
system
 Triggers muscle contraction
 Excitatory effect on skeletal muscles
 Inhibitory effect on cardiac muscles
 Acetylcholine level decreases in the brain during
Alzheimer’s disease
 Cells that release acetylcholine are known
as cholinergic neurons

 Biogenic amines

 Catecholamines (norepinephrine, epinephrine,

dopamine), serotonin and histamine belong to
this class
 Neurons that secrete norepinephrine are
called adrenergic neurons
 Affect mood, sleep, wakefulness, attention, etc.
 Their imbalance has been linked to various
disorders, e.g. anxiety, depression, ADHD and
schizophrenia

 Amino acids

 Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter in

the brain
 Glutamate receptor is the target of several drugs
such as angel dust
 Glycine and GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
have an inhibitory effect in the spinal cord and
brain
 Anxiety reducing drugs enhance the action of
GABA
  Neuropeptides
 Endorphins and enkephalins act as a
neuromodulator
 These bind with opioid receptors and block pain
signals
 Gaseous neurotransmitters

 Nitric oxide (NO) acts as a retrograde messenger

at some synapses
 It transmits information from postsynaptic to the
presynaptic neuron, i.e. the opposite direction
 Carbon monoxide (CO) is shown to function as a
neuromodulator

In neuroanatomy, as in general anatomy, directional terms

and planes of reference are essential for describing the
location and orientation of structures within the nervous
system. These terms provide a standardized way for
anatomists, neurologists, and other medical professionals to
communicate and understand the complex organization of
the brain and spinal cord. Here are some of the key
directional terms and planes of reference used in
neuroanatomy:

Directional Terms:
Anterior (Rostral): Refers to the front or forward direction.
In the brain, it is often used to describe structures closer to
the forehead or nose.
Posterior (Caudal): Refers to the back or rear direction. In
the brain, it is often used to describe structures closer to the
back of the head or the spinal cord.
Superior (Cranial): Means above or higher in position. It is
used to describe structures closer to the top of the head or
the brain.
Inferior (Caudal): Means below or lower in position. It is
used to describe structures closer to the bottom or base of
the brain.
Medial: Refers to the middle or central position. It is used to
describe structures closer to the midline of the brain or
spinal cord.
Lateral: Means to the side or away from the midline. It is
used to describe structures farther from the central axis of
the brain or spinal cord.
Proximal: Indicates a position closer to the center of the
body or the point of origin of a structure.
Distal: Indicates a position farther away from the center of
the body or the point of origin of a structure.

Planes of Reference:

Sagittal Plane: A vertical plane that divides the brain or

body into left and right halves. A mid-sagittal plane divides
the structure into equal left and right halves.
Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane): A vertical plane that divides
the brain or body into front (anterior) and back (posterior)
portions.
Transverse Plane (Horizontal Plane): A horizontal plane
that divides the brain or body into upper (superior) and
lower (inferior) parts.
These directional terms and planes of reference are crucial
for accurately describing the location and relationships of
neuroanatomical structures. By using standardized
terminology, medical professionals can communicate
 effectively and precisely when discussing various aspects of
the nervous system's structure and function.

Glial cells, also known as neuroglia or simply glia, are non-

neuronal cells that provide crucial support and maintenance
functions for neurons in the nervous system. Although
neurons often receive more attention due to their role in
transmitting electrical signals and facilitating cognitive
processes, glial cells play essential roles in supporting the
overall function and health of the nervous system. There are
several types of glial cells, each with specific functions:

.
Astrocytes: Astrocytes are the most abundant glial cells
in the central nervous system (CNS). They have numerous
processes that extend and interact with neurons and blood
vessels. Astrocytes play a variety of roles, including
providing structural support to neurons, regulating the
chemical environment around neurons, controlling the
concentrations of ions and neurotransmitters, and helping to
form the blood-brain barrier, which protects the brain from
harmful substances in the bloodstream. They are also
involved in processes related to brain development and
synaptic plasticity.
Oligodendrocytes: Oligodendrocytes are glial cells
found in the CNS. Their primary function is to produce
myelin, a fatty substance that wraps around the axons of
neurons, forming the myelin sheath. This myelin sheath acts
as an insulating layer, increasing the speed and efficiency of
nerve impulse transmission along the axons.
 Schwann Cells: Schwann cells are the equivalent of
oligodendrocytes in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
Like oligodendrocytes, they produce myelin, but they do so
around the axons of peripheral neurons. Myelination in the
PNS serves the same purpose as in the CNS—increasing the
speed of nerve signal conduction.
Microglia: Microglia are immune cells in the CNS. They
act as the primary defense against pathogens and foreign
substances in the brain. When there is damage or infection
in the brain, microglia become activated, migrating to the
affected area to remove debris and pathogens through
phagocytosis. They also play a role in modulating
inflammation and supporting tissue repair.
Ependymal Cells: Ependymal cells line the ventricles
(fluid-filled spaces) of the brain and the central canal of the
spinal cord. They are involved in the production and
regulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which cushions and
protects the brain and spinal cord.
.

Overall, glial cells have diverse functions that support and

maintain the structural and functional integrity of the
nervous system. They are essential for normal neural
development, synaptic activity, nerve impulse transmission,
and immune responses within the brain and spinal cord. The
collaboration between glial cells and neurons is vital for
proper nervous system function, and disruptions in glial cell
activity can lead to various neurological disorders.