Coordination and response

Prepared by Dr. Saiful

QUASAR
H#37, RD# 122,GULSHAN-1
Introduction to Coordination and
Responses
• Stimulus: A change in the environment.
• Coordination: The working together of various
organs of the body in a proper manner to produce
appropriate reaction to a stimulus.
• In humans, the brain, spinal cord and nerves serve
to coordinate and regulate bodily functions.
 Coordination systems
• The five senses, e.g. sight, skin, smell, hearing, and tongue
detect stimuli in the environment.
• Coordination systems work together to process information
received from stimuli and to produce appropriate responses.

• Animals have two coordination systems:

➢The Nervous System
➢The Endocrine system
Some basic things we need to know
• Stimulus: A change in the internal or external environment.
• Receptors- They are a group of specialized cells which detect a
particular stimulus and generate an impulse, which is carried
by a neurone.
• Effector- Reacts to cause a response. (Muscle/Glands)
• Synapse- It is the gap between two adjacent neurones.
our nervous system

is divided into the central

nervous system (CNS)
which is the brain and
spinal cord

and the
peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
Consists of nerves, which
connects everything to the
brain and spinal cord
Central Nervous System
• It is the control center of the body.
• Processes sensory information, makes decision and initiates
responses.
• The brain plays an important role in the control of most body
functions and cognitive senses. For example: movement,
speech and memory.
• The spinal cord is an extension of the brain. It conducts
impulses from the receptors to the brain or from the brain to
the effectors and serves as a reflex centre.
The Peripheral Nervous System
• Is responsible for the communication between the CNS and
the rest of the body.
• Consists of cranial and spinal nerves that branch out from the
CNS and connects it to the rest of the body.

• Cranial nerves- Nerves that carry impulses to and from the

Brain. They originate from the Brain.
• Spinal Nerves- Nerves that carry impulses to and from the
spinal cord. They originate from the Spinal cord.
 The functional unit of a nervous system is a neurone
Structure of a neurone

dendrites nerve endings

myelin sheath

cell body

nucleus

axon
Structure of a Neurone
• Cell body- Contains a nucleus and cytoplasm. It has many
energy providing mitochondria and ribosomes.
• Axon- A long fibre that transmits impulses away from the cell
body. They can be more than a meter long.
• Dendrons- The shorter nerve fibres that conduct impulses
towards the cell body.
• Dendrites: The terminal branches of axon and dendrons.
• Myelin Sheath- Made up of special fat cells called Schwann
cells. Myelin sheath is found surrounding the Axon of both
Motor and Sensory Neurones. It allows impulse to flow at an
increased rate through the Axon.
There are three types of neurones.
They are:
• Sensory Neurone (Afferent Neurone):Transmits impulses from the
sense organs or receptors to the CNS.
• Motor Neurone (Efferent Neurone): Transmits impulses from the
CNS to the effectors.
• Relay Neurone (Intermediate Neurone):Connects the sensory
neurones with the motor neurones.
 there are different types of neurone

dendrites direction of
cell body electrical
signal

myelin
sheath

axon

nerve
endings
sensory
motor neurone relay neurone
sends signals to your
neurone connects neurones to
sends signals from other neurones
muscles to tell them to move your sense organs
your brain
interprets the information it gets
through your senses in order to
monitor and regulate your body

as well as being responsible for

thinking, learning, memory

and emotion

Credit: Heidi Cartwright, Wellcome Images

Different parts of
your brain have
different functions…
The brain consists of three major
parts.
1. The Forebrain
➢ The Cerebrum, the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland
2. The Midbrain
3. The Hindbrain
➢ The Cerebellum and the Medulla Oblongata
Structure of the Brain
Parts of a mammalian brain

• Cerebrum/Cerebral Hemisphere: It controls intelligence,

memory , sensations like sight, speech and hearing and all
voluntary actions.
• Cerebellum- It controls muscular coordination, balance and
posture of body.
• Medulla Oblongata- Controls involuntary actions, e.g.
heartbeat, peristalsis, etc.
• Hypothalamus- Regulates body temperature and osmotic
pressure in blood.
• Pituitary Gland- Secretes hormones like ADH, growth
hormones etc.
 our Spinal Cord
is a long, fragile tube-like structure that
begins at the end of the brain stem and
continues down almost to the bottom of
the spine.
It consists of nerves that carry incoming
and outgoing messages between the Brain
and the rest of the body.

It is also the Reflex Centre of our body.

The Spinal Cord consists of two distinct
regions.

• The Grey matter- The Grey matter consists mainly of the cell
bodies of the neurones. It forms the outer layers of the brain
and the central parts of the spinal cord.
• The White matter- The White matter consists of mainly of
nerve fibres. It forms the central parts of the Brain and the
outer layers of the spinal cord.
What is Reflex?
A reflex is a simple behavior pattern
involving a quick, automatic response
to a stimulus. It is done involuntarily.

E.g. if you were cooking and you

accidentally touched a hot pot on your
stove, you would immediately
involuntarily snatch your hand away
from the pot. This response is called a
‘reflex action’.
 The differences between voluntary and
involuntary action
Involuntary Action Voluntary Action
• Very quick • Slower
• Conscious part of • Conscious part of
the brain not the brain involved.
involved.
• Always learnt from
• Usually inborn or
inherited. E.g. if the experience. E.g. when
hand is accidentally a person drives a car.
placed on a hot This is a conscious
object, it is pulled action.
away, rapidly. This is
a reflex action.
 The pathway of a withdrawal
reflex.
In this case, the stimulus is pain. The
stimulus is detected by the pain
receptors.

The receptor then generates an

impulse, which is carried by sensory
neurone through the Dorsal root
ganglion to the Spinal cord.

The sensory neurone synapses with

the relay neurone. Then the relay
neurone synapses with motor
neurone. Then the motor neurone
carries the impulse to the effector
muscle.

Then the muscle contracts and

moves the hand away.
Structure of the eye.
• Sclera- Protection of the eye.
• Conjunctiva- Protection against entry of bacteria.
• Cornea- A transparent extension of the sclera which
allows transmission of light.
• Choroid- Prevents internal reflection of light and carries
blood vessels.
• Iris- Controls the amount of light entering the eye.
• Pupil- The hole through which light passes from the front
to the back of the eye.
• Retina: A light sensitive layer made of specialized nerve
cells, the rods (for black and white vision ) and cones (for
colour vision)
• Ciliary body (muscle)- Muscles which alter the shape
of the lens for focusing.
• Suspensory ligament- They connect the lens to the
ciliary body.
• Fovea- The region of the retina where there are most
cones. (most light sensitive spot)
• Blind Spot- The region where nerves connecting with
the rods and cones leave the eye through the optic
nerve. It is devoid of light sensitive cells.
• Aqueous humour- A transparent watery liquid which
allows light through and helps to give the front of the
eye its shape.
• Vitreous humour- A transparent jelly which gives the
eyeball its shape.
Light intensity

Whenever there is a change in light intensity,

➢Reflex action (Pupil Reflex) takes

place.
➢Circular and radial muscles in iris
work as antagonistic pair.
r
i
g ➢Response to bright light: Response to dim light:
➢Circular muscles contract ➢Circular muscles relax.
h ➢Radial muscles relax. ➢Radial muscles contract.
t ➢Pupil becomes smaller. ➢Pupil becomes larger.
l➢Therefore, less light enters the ➢Therefore more light enters the eye.
i eye.
g
h
t
:
 Focusing
Focusing distant objects
• Ciliary muscles relax.
• Suspensory ligaments tighten.
• Lens becomes thinner and less
convex.
Focusing near objects
• Ciliary muscles contract.
• Suspensory ligaments
slacken.
• Lens thickens and becomes
more convex.
Human beings have stereoscopic vision
ADVANTAGES:
1) The image is 3-dimensional (3D).
2) It helps to determine the solidity of objects.
3) It helps to judge the distance and speed of a
moving object.
4) Gives a wider field of view.
 Some basic things we need to
know.
• Gland- A group of secretory cells working together to perform
specific functions.
Glands are of two types
1) Exocrine Gland (have ducts)
2) Endocrine gland (do not have ducts)

• Hormone- It is a substance, mostly protein, which is produced

and released by the Endocrine glands. They travel via blood to
bring specific changes to the target tissue or organs.
 The major Endocrine Glands:

Thyroid Gland- It is located in the neck region, which secretes Thyroxin.

Thyroxin controls BRM (Basel Metabolic Rate).

Islets of Langerhans- It is located behind the lower part of the stomach. It

contains Alpha cells (Glucagon) and Beta cells (Insulin).

Adrenal Gland- It is located on the upper pole of Kidney, which secretes

Adrenaline (fight hormone). Adrenaline is produced in all mammals when
they sense danger or feel insecure and need to be alert.

Gonads- Testes produce

➢ Testosterone: controls secondary sexual features.
- Ovaries produce
➢ Progesterone: further thickening and maintenance of thickened uterine
walls
➢ Oestrogen: 1) Stimulates a primary follicle to become a mature egg
2) Stimulates pituitary gland to secrete LH
3) Repairs the uterine wall
The Pituitary gland produces several
hormones.
Functions
• Grow hormone -Promotes growth
• ADH (Anti Diuretic -Controls the osmotic
Hormone) potential of blood.
• F.S.H -Converts primary follicle
into Graafian follicle
-Produces Oestrogen
-Converts Graafian follicle
• L.H to Corpus Luteum.
-Causes ovulation.
Hormones Functions

• Oxytocin - Causes the contraction of Uterus for the

onset of labour..

• Prolactin - Stimulates milk production during lactation.

• TSH Stimulates Thyroid glands to secrete

Thyroxin.

Prepared by Dr. Saiful

QUASAR
The Differences between nervous
response and hormonal response:
Nervous Response Hormonal Response
• Involves nerve • Involves hormones.
impulses • Hormones
• Impulses transported by
transmitted by blood
neurones • Slow
• Quick • Always involuntary
• Maybe voluntary or
involuntary • May affect more
• Usually localized than one target
organ
• Temporary • More lasting