Nervous System

By Dr Vipan Goyal
 Nervous system
• The nervous system is the part of an animal that coordinates its
actions by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its
body.
• The nervous system detects environmental changes that impact the
body, then works in tandem with the endocrine system to respond
to such events.
• Nervous tissue first arose in wormlike organisms about 550 to 600
million years ago.
 Nervous system
• In vertebrates it consists of three main parts, the central
nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system
(PNS).
• The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.
• The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are enclosed
bundles of the long fibers or axons, that connect the CNS to
every other part of the body. (Cranial and Spinal Nerves)
 Functions of nervous system
• Sensory input – Gathering information, to monitor changes
occurring inside and outside the body.
• Integration – To process and interpret sensory input and decide if
action is needed.
• Motor output
 A response to stimuli.
 Activates muscles or glands
 Neuron
• Neuron= nerve cells, (they have minimum power of regeneration
and also the longest cell in the body)
• Cells specialized to transmit electrochemical messages through
neuron by neuron with the empty space called synapse.
• Major regions of neurons
• Cell body – Nucleus and metabolic centre of the cell.
• Processes - Fibres that extend from the cell body.
Neuron
 Nerves
• Nerves are thread-like structures and these emerge from the brain
and spinal cord responsible for carrying messages to all the parts of
the body. There are three types of nerves.
1. Sensory nerves send messages from all the senses to the brain.
2. Motor nerves carry messages from the brain to all the muscles.
3. Mixed nerves carry both sensory and motor nerves.
 Nerves
• Cranial nerves begin from the brain as these nerves carry impulses
to start from the central nervous system. Certain cranial nerves
belong to the group of mixed nerves while certain ones fall under
sensory nerves.
• Spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord. All the spinal nerves
carry impulses to and from the central nervous system and these
are part of mixed nerves.
 SENSORY RECEPTORS
• Sensory receptors are classified according to the type of energy
they can detect and respond to.
• Mechanoreceptors: hearing and balance, stretching.
• Photoreceptors: light.
• Chemoreceptors: smell and taste mainly, as well as internal sensors
in the digestive and circulatory systems.
• Thermoreceptors: changes in temperature.
• Electroreceptors: detect electrical currents in the surrounding
environment.
 SENSORY RECEPTORS
• Mechanoreceptors vary greatly in the specific type of stimulus and
duration of stimulus/action potentials.
• The most adaptable vertebrate mechanoreceptor is the hair cell.
• In humans and mammals hair cells are involved with detection of
sound and gravity and providing balance.
 Parts
• The nervous system is divided
functionally and structurally
into 2 parts:-
 Central nervous system-
The brain and the spinal
cord.
 Peripheral nervous
system- The cranial nerves
and spinal nerves.
 The Peripheral Nervous System
• Sensory (afferent) division – Nerve fibers that carry information to
the central nervous system.
• Motor (efferent) division – Nerve fibers that carry impulses away
from the central nervous system.
• The peripheral nervous system is further classified into two
functional divisions:
 The somatic nervous system- Voluntary, controls the skeletal muscles
 The automatic nervous system- Involuntary, controls the visceral
organs
Organization of the Nervous System
 Central Nervous System
• Composed of the brain and spinal cord.
• The brain consists of the gross structures: cerebrum, cerebellum,
brainstem and the diencephalon.
 Diencephalon- Thalamus , hypothalamus and pineal body
 Brainstem- Pons, Medulla and Midbrain
• The spinal cord is made up of nervous tissue, which extends from
the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the
vertebral column.
 Brain
• Brain is covered by a
membrane called
meninges which protect
the body from external
injury.
• It is situated in a bony
box called Cranium which
protect it from external
injury.
 Cerebrum
• This is the largest part of the brain, consist
of right and left hemisphere connected by
the corpus callosum.
• Each cerebral hemisphere is composed of
different lobes- frontal, temporal, parietal
and occipital
• The frontal lobe of the cerebrum
 Influences the personality of the person
 Also responsible for judgment, abstract
reasoning, social behavior, language
expression and motor movement.
 Cerebrum
• The temporal lobe of cerebrum
 This part of the cerebrum controls the hearing,
language comprehension, storage and recall of
memories.
 The LIMBIC system is deeply located in the
temporal lobe. This controls the basic drives
such as hunger, anger, emotion and sexual drive.
• The parietal lobe of cerebrum
 This part interprets and integrates the sensory
inputs like touch, temperature and pain.
 It interprets size, shape, distance and texture.
 Cerebrum
• The occipital lobe of the
cerebrum
 This functions mainly to
interpret visual stimuli.
• Speech areas in the cerebrum
 Wernicke’s area- Responsible for
the sensory reception of speech.
 Broca’s area- Responsible for the
motor speech.
 Cerebrum
• The outer layer of the cerebrum is called
the cortex (also known as “gray
matter”). Information collected by the five
senses comes into the brain from the spinal
cord to the cortex. This information is then
directed to other parts of the nervous system
for further processing.
• In the inner part of the forebrain sits the
thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland.
• If cerebrum is removed, the person will
become a simple reflex animal.
 Cerebrum
• The thalamus carries messages from the sensory organs like the
eyes, ears, nose, and fingers to the cortex. Centre of pain, cold and
heat.
• The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland, which makes the
hormones that control our growth, metabolism, digestion, sexual
maturity, and response to stress.
• It also controls the hunger, pulse, thirst, appetite, sleep patterns,
love, hate, joy and other processes in our bodies that happen
automatically.
• The Midbrain
 The midbrain, located underneath the
middle of the forebrain, acts as a master
coordinator for all the messages going in
and out of the brain to the spinal cord.
 Centre of hearing and vision.
• The Hindbrain
 The hindbrain sits underneath the back
end of the cerebrum, and it consists of the
cerebellum, pons, and medulla.
 Cerebellum
• The second largest brain region
• Has also two hemispheres
• The cerebellum — also called the “little
brain” because it looks like a small version
of the cerebrum — is responsible for
balance, movement, and coordination.
• Functions to coordinate muscle movement,
posture and control balance/equilibrium.
• It maintains the posture of the body.
• Alcohal affects the cerebellum most.
 The BRAINSTEM
• It connects brain to spinal cord. It is composed of the
midbrain, the pons and the medulla oblongata.
• Functions: House the center for respiration and
cardiovascular system.
• The PONS:-Connects the cerebellum with the cerebrum,
relaying sensory information between the cerebrum and
cerebellum.
 The most inferior portion of the brainstem.
 Serves as the center for autonomic reflexes to
maintain homeostasis, regulating respiratory
vasomotor and cardiac functions.
 Medulla Oblongata
• It controls:-
 Respiration
 Sneezing
 Coughing
 Vomiting
 Diencephalon
• The thalamus and the
hypothalamus.
• The thalamus is the relay station of
all sensory stimuli towards the brain.
• The hypothalamus controls body
temperature, appetite, balance,
pituitary secretions and sleep-wake
cycle.
 SPINAL CORD
• The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of
nervous tissue, which extends from the medulla oblongata in
the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column
(from the foramen magnum)
• It encloses the central canal of the spinal cord, which
contains cerebrospinal fluid (acts as shock absorber)
• The spinal cord carries out two main functions: It connects a
large part of the peripheral nervous system to the brain.
• Information (nerve impulses) reaching the spinal cord
through sensory neurons are transmitted up into the brain.
 SPINAL CORD
• There are 31 pairs of spinal
nerves that exit the spinal cord.
 Cervical – 8 pairs
 Thoracic – 12 pairs
 Lumbar – 5 pairs
 Sacral – 5 pairs
 Caudal or Coccygeal – 1 pair
Reflex Actions
 Reflex Actions
• A reflex arc is a neural pathway that controls a reflex.
• In vertebrates, most sensory neurons do not pass directly into the
brain, but synapse in the spinal cord. This allows for faster reflex
actions to occur by activating spinal motor neurons without the
delay of routing signals through the brain. However, the brain will
receive the sensory input while the reflex is being carried out and
the analysis of the signal takes place after the reflex action.
• Spinal cord works as centre of relex action.
• Reflex action was ist discovered by Scientist Marshall Hall.
 Peripheral Nervous System
• Made up of nerves arising from brain and spinal cord.
• These are called Cranial nerves and Spinal Nerves.
CRANIAL NERVES
• Are 12 pairs of nerves that exit the brain, are 12 pairs.
• It can be classified as :
 Sensory
 Motor
 Mixed(sensory and motor)
 Spinal nerves
• 31 pairs of spinal nerves
 Autonomic Nervous System
• The part of the peripheral
nervous system that enervates
cardiac muscles, smooth
muscles and glands.
• Functionally divided into
 Sympathetic nervous
system
 Parasympathetic nervous
system
 Sympathetic system
• Utilized by the body for flight and fight response.
• Neurotransmitter agents are Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
(coming from the adrenal gland)
• Adrenergic system- ADRENALINE
 Sympathetic responses
• Increased
 Heart rate
 Blood sugar
 Blood pressure
 Visual acuity (Pupillary dilation(broadening of the people))
 Smooth muscle tone --- sphincture are contracted
 Metabolism--- increase glucose and increase in fatty acids
 Sympathetic responses
• Decreased
• Peristalsis (Peristalsis is a series of wave-like muscle contractions
that moves food to different processing stations in the digestive
tract. The process of peristalsis begins in the esophagus when a
bolus of food is swallowed)
• Salivary secretions
 Parasympathetic System
• CHOLINERGIC system: The cholinergic system is composed of
organized nerve cells that use the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in
the transduction of action potentials.
• These nerve cells are activated by or contain and release
acetylcholine during the propagation of a nerve impulse. The
cholinergic system has been associated with a number of cognitive
functions, including memory, selective attention, and emotional
processing.
• Neurotransmitter is Acetylcholine.
 Parasympathetic System
• Increased
 Gastric secretions
 Salivary secretions
 Peristalsis
• Decreased
 Pupillary constriction (constriction response (miosis), is
the narrowing of the pupil).
 Conditional Reflex
• First shown by
Pavlov on dog Laika.
• It is controlled by
Cerebrum
• The nature of nerve
impulse is
Electrochemical.
Thank You