The Nervous System

Anatomy and Physiology

Nervous System
• Is the master controlling and
communicating system in the body.

• Its signalling device, or means of

communicating with body cells, is
electrical impulses.
 3 Overlapping Functions
1. It uses its millions of sensory receptors to
monitor changes (stimuli) inside and outside of
the body and the gathered information is called
sensory input.
2. It processes and interprets the sensory input
and makes decisions about what should be
done at each moment – a process called
integration.
3. It then effects a response by activating muscles
and glands via motor output.
Organization of the
Nervous System
 Structural Classification
1. Central Nervous System consists of the brain and spinal
cord, which occupy the dorsal body cavity and act as the
integrating and command centers of the nervous system.
− They interpret incoming sensory information and issue
instructions based on past experience and current
conditions.
2. Peripheral Nervous System is the part nervous system
outside the CNS, consist mainly of the nerves that extend
from the brain and spinal cord.
− Spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the spinal cord.
− Cranial nerve carry impulses to and from the brain.
 Functional Classification
• The functional classification scheme is concerned only with
PNS structures.
• 2 Principal Subdivision
1. Sensory or Afferent Division – consists of nerve fibers
that convey impulses to the central nervous from
sensory receptors located in various parts of the body.
• Somatic fibers – delivers impulses from the skin,
skeletal muscles, and joints.
• Visceral fibers – transmitting impulses from the
visceral organs.
2. Motor or Efferent Division – carries impulses from the
CNS to effector organs, the muscle and glands.
2 Subdivisions of Motor Division
1. Somatic Nervous System (voluntary nervous
system) – allows us to consciously, or
voluntarily, control our skeletal muscles.
2. Autonomic Nervous System (involuntary
nervous system) – regulates events that are
automatic, or involuntary such as the activity
of smooth and cardiac muscles and glands.
2 Parts:
• Sympathetic
• Parasympathetic
Nervous Tissue
Structure and Function
Supporting Cells
• Supporting cells in the CNS are “lumped together”
as neuroglia.
• Each of the different types of neuroglia, also
simply called glia or glia cells, has special function.
• The CNS glia include:
a. Astrocytes – their numerous projections have
swollen ends that cling to neurons, bracing them
and anchoring them to their nutrient supply
lines, the blood capillaries.
2. Microglia – spiderlike phagocytes that dispose of
debris, including dead brain cells and bacteria.
3. Ependymal cells – these glial cells line the
cavities of the brain and the spinal cord. The
beating of their cilia helps to circulate the
cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities and
forms a protective cushion around the CNS.
4. Oligodendrocytes – glia that wrap their flat
extensions tightly around the nerve fibers,
producing fatty insulating coverings called myelin
sheaths.
Neurons
Anatomy
• Cell body – is the metabolic center of the cell
• Nissl substance – the rough ER.
• Neurofibrils – intermediate filaments that are
important in maintaining cell shape.
• Dendrites – neuron processes or fibers that convey
incoming messages toward the cell body.
• Axons – those that generate nerve impulses and
typically conduct them away from the cell body.
• Axon hillock – a cone-like region of the cell body
where the axon arises.
• Axon terminals – a collateral branch along the axon,
the terminal end.
• Neurotransmitters are the body's chemical
messengers. They are the molecules used by the
nervous system to transmit messages between
neurons.
• Synaptic cleft – a tiny gap that separates neurons.
Such a functional junction is called a synapse.
• Myelin – a whitish, fatty material with a waxy
appearance that covers the nerve fibers. Myelin
protects and insulates the fibers and increases the
transmission rate of nerve impulses.
• Schwann cells – are specialized supporting cells that
wrapped themselves tightly around the axon jelly-roll
fashion, covers the axons that are outside the CNS.
• Myelin sheath – a tight coil of wrapped membranes that
encloses the axon after the schwann cells wrap themselves.
• Nodes of Ranvier – the gap or indentations between
individual schwann cells.
• White matter – consists of dense collections of myelinated
fibers
• Gray matter – contains unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies.
 Functional Classification
• Sensory or afferent neurons – neurons carries
impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS.
• The dendrite endings of the sensory neurons has
receptors that are activated by specific changes.
• Motor or efferent neurons – carries impulses from the
CNS to the viscera and/or muscles and glands.
• Association neurons or interneurons – they connect
the motor and sensory neurons in neural pathways.
Structural Classification
• Structural classifications of neurons is based on the
number of processes or fibers extending from the
cell body.
1. Multipolar – most common type
2. Bipolar - two processes, (axon & dendrite), rare,
found only on special sense organs
3. Unipolar – single process
 Physiology
• Nerve impulses
− Plasma membrane of a
resting, or inactive neuron
is polarized.
− The nerve impulse is an all-
or-none response.
− Fibers that have myelin
sheaths conduct impulses
much faster because the
nerve literally jumps, or
leaps, from node to node
along the length of the
fiber.
Reflexes
• Reflexes are rapid, predictable , and involuntary response to
stimuli.
• Reflexes occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs, and
involve both CNS and PNS structure.
• Somatic reflexes include all reflexes that stimulate the
skeletal muscles.
• Autonomic reflexes regulate the activity of smooth muscle,
the heart, and the glands. It also regulates such body
functions as digestion, elimination, blood pressure and
sweating.
Central Nervous System
The Brain and the Spinal Cord
Functional Anatomy of the Brain
• It is about two good fistfuls of pinkish gray tissue,
wrinkled like walnut, and with a texture of cold
oatmeal.
• Four Major Regions
1. Cerebral hemisphere
2. Diencephalon
3. Brain stem
4. Cerebellum
Cerebral Hemisphere
• The paired cerebral hemisphere collectively called the cerebrum,
are the most superior part of the brain and larger than the other
three brain region.
• The entire surface of the cerebral hemisphere exhibits elevated
ridges of tissue called gyri, separated by shallow grooves called
sulci.
• Less numerous are the deeper grooves called fissures, which
separate large regions of the brain
• Longitudinal fissure is a single deep fissure that separates the
cerebral hemisphere.
• Other fissures or sulci divided each cerebral hemisphere into a
number of lobes.
• Speech, memory, logical and emotional response, as well as
consciousness, interpretation of sensation, and voluntary movement
are all functions of the neuron of the cerebral cortex.
• The somatic sensory area is located in the parietal lobe posterior to
the central sulcus.
• The somatic sensory area allows you to recognize pain, coldness, or a
light touch.
• The sensory pathways are crossed pathways.
• Impulses from the special sense organs are interpreted in the other
cortical areas:
a. Visual area – posterior part of the occipital lobe
b. Auditory – temporal lobe
c. Olfactory – deep inside the temporal lobe.
• The primary motor area that allows us to consciously move our
skeletal muscles is anterior to the central sulcus in the frontal lobe.
• The axons of these motor neurons form the major voluntary tract –
the corticospinal or pyramidal tract which are also crossed pathways.
• Neurons in this area control the body areas having the finest motor
control (face, mouth, and hands).
• A specialized area that is very involved in our ability to speak, Broca’s
area, is found at the base of the precentral gyrus.
• Areas involved in higher intellectual reasoning and socially acceptable
behavior are believed to be in the anterior part of the frontal lobe.
• Complex memories appear to be stored in the temporal and frontal
lobes.
• The cell bodies of the neurons involved in the cerebral
hemisphere functions are found only in the outermost
gray matter of the cerebrum, the cerebral cortex.
• The deeper cerebral white matter is composed of fiber
tracts carrying impulses to or from the cortex.
• Corpus callosum is a large fiber tract that connects the
cerebral hemispheres and allows them to communicate
with one another.
• Basal nuclei or basal ganglia are several “islands” of gray
matter that are buried deep within the white matter. It
helps regulate voluntary motor activities.
Diencephalon
• The diencephalon, or interbrain, sits atop the brain
stem and is enclosed by the cerebral hemisphere.
• Major structures:
a. Thalamus
b. Hypothalamus
c. Epithalamus
• Thalamus encloses the shallow third ventricle of the brain,, is a
relay station for sensory impulses passing upward to the
sensory cortex.
• Hypothalamus (“under the thalamus”) is an important
autonomic nervous system center because it plays a role in the
regulation of body temperature, water balance, and
metabolism.
− It is also an important part of the limbic system, or
“emotional-visceral brain” (thirst, appetite, sex, pain, and
pleasure).
• Pituitary gland is an endocrine gland that hangs from the
anterior floor of the hypothalamus by a slender stalk and
produces hormones of its own.
 • Mammillary bodies are reflex centers involved in olfaction
(sense of smell)
• Epithalamus forms the roof of the third ventricle.
• Important parts:
a. Pineal body – part of the endocrine system
b. Choroid plexus – are knots of capillaries within
each ventricle, form the cerebrospinal fluid.
 Brain Stem
• About the size of a thumb
in diameter and approx. 3
inches long.
• Its structures are:
a. Midbrain
b. Pons
c. Medulla oblongata
• Midbrain is a relatively small part of the brain that
extends from the mammillary bodies to the pons
inferiorly.
• Cerebral aqueduct is a tiny canal that travels
through the midbrain and connect the third
ventricle of the diencephalon to the fourth.
• Cerebral peduncles convey ascending and
descending impulses
• Corpora quadrigemina are reflex centers involved
with vision and hearing.
• Pons is the rounded structure that protrudes just below the
midbrain. Pons means “bridge” and this area of the brainstem is
mostly fiber tracts.
• Medulla oblongata is the most inferior part of the brain stem.
− The medulla contains many nuclei that regulate vital visceral
activities.
− It contains centers that control heart rate, blood pressure,
breathing, swallowing, and vomiting.
• Reticular formation is a diffuse mass of gray matter. The neurons
of the reticular formation are involved in motor control of the
visceral organ.
− Reticular activating system plays a role in consciousness and
the awake/sleep cycles
Cerebellum
• The large, cauliflower-like cerebellum projects dorsally from under the
occipital lobe of the cerebrum.
• The cerebellum provides the precise timing for skeletal muscle activity
and controls our balance and equilibrium.
• Fibers reach the cerebellum from the equilibrium apparatus of the
inner ear, the eye, the proprioceptors of the skeletal muscles and
tendons.
• If the cerebellum is damaged, movements become clumsy and
disorganized – a condition called ataxia.
Protection of the Central Nervous System
• Meninges
− are the three connective tissue membranes covering and
protecting the CNS structures.
− Dura mater is the outermost double-layered membrane
that surrounds the brain. The other layer is attached to
the skull, forming the periosteum. The other, called
meningeal layer forms the outermost covering of the
brain and continues as the dura mater of the spinal cord.
− Falx cerebri is a membrane that extend inwards to form a
fold that attaches the brain to the cranial cavity
− Tentorium cerebelli – separates the cerebellum from the
cerebrum
• The middle meningeal layer is the web-like
arachnoid mater. Its threadlike extensions span
the subarachnoid space to attach it to the
innermost membrane, the pia mater. The
delicate pia mater clings tightly to the surface of
the brain and spinal cord, following every ford.
Specialized projections of the arachnoid
membrane, the arachnoid villi protrude through
the dura mater. The cerebrospinal fluid is
absorbed into the venous blood through the
arachnoid villi.
Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Cerebrospinal fluid is a watery “broth” similar in its
make up to the blood plasma, from which it forms.
• CSF is continually formed from the blood by the
choroid plexus. Choroid plexus are clusters of
capillaries hanging from the “roof” in each of the
brain ventricles.
• CSF forms and drains at a constant rate so that its normal
pressure and volume (150 ml – about half a cup) are
maintained. Any significant changes of its composition (or
the appearance of bloods cells in it) may be a sign of
meningitis or any brain pathologies.
• The CSF sample for testing is obtained by a procedure called
the lumbar (spinal) tap.
• Since the withdrawal of fluid for testing decreases CSF fluid
pressure, the patient must remain in a horizontal position
(lying down) for 6-12 hours after the procedure to prevent
agonizingly painful “spinal headache”.
The Blood-Brain Barrier
• Neurons are kept separated from blood-borne substances by
a so-called blood-brain barrier, composed of the least
permeable capillaries in he whole body.
• Only water, glucose and essential amino acids pass through
the walls of these capillaries.
• Metabolic wastes (urea, toxins, proteins, most drugs) are
prevented from entering the brain tissue.
• The blood-brain barrier is virtually useless against fats,
respiratory gases, and other fat soluble molecules that
diffuse through all plasma membranes. That explain why
blood-borne alcohol, nicotine, and anesthetic can affect the
brain.
Spinal Cord
• The cylindrical spinal cord, which is approx. 17 inches (42cm)
long, is a glistening white continuation of the brain stem.
• The spinal cord provides a two-way conduction pathway to and
from the brain, and it is a major reflex center.
• Enclosed within the vertebral column, spinal cord extends from
the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or second lumbar
vertebra, where it ends just below the ribs.
• Like the brain, the spinal cord is cushioned by meninges.
Meningeal coverings do not end at the second vertebra but
extend beyond the spinal cord.
• Beyond L3 is the ideal spot for Lumbar (spinal) tap.
• In humans, 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the
cord and exit fro the vertebral column to serve the
body area close by.
• The spinal cord is about the size of a thumb but
enlarges in the cervical and lumbar regions where the
nerves for the upper and lower limbs arise.
• Vertebral column grows faster than the spinal cord.
• The collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end of
the vertebral canal is called the cauda equina (horse’s
tail).
Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord and Spinal
Roots
• Dorsal or Posterior horns – contains association neurons, or
interneurons.
• The cell bodies of the sensory neurons, whose fibers enter the
cord by the dorsal root, are found on the enlarged area called the
dorsal root ganglion. If damaged, sensation from the body area it
serves will be lost.
• Ventral horns – contains cell bodies of motor neurons of the
somatic (voluntary) nervous system, which send their axon out of
the ventral root of the cord.
• The dorsal and ventral roots fuse to from the spinal nerves.
White Matter of the Spinal Cord
• White matter of the spinal cord is composed of myelinated
fiber tracts – some running to higher centers, some travelling
from the brain to the cord, and some conducting impulses
from one side of the spinal cord to the other.
• Divided into 3 regions:
a. Posterior columns – the tracts are ascending tracts that
carry sensory input to the brain.
b. Lateral columns – ascending and descending (motor)
tracts.
c. Anterior columns - ascending and descending (motor)
tracts.
Peripheral Nervous System
Nerves
Structure of a Nerve
• A nerve is a bundle of neuron fibers found outside the CNS.
• Within a nerve, neuron fibers, or processes, are wrapped in
protective connective tissue coverings.
• Each fiber is surrounded by a delicate connective tissue sheath
called endoneurium.
• Groups of fibers are bound by a coarser connective tissue
wrapping, the perineurium, to form fiber bundles, or fascicles.
• Finally, all fascicles are bound together by a tough fibrous sheath,
the epineurium, to form the cord-like nerve.
• Nerves carrying both sensory and motor fibers are called mixed
nerves; all spinal nerves are mixed nerves
Cranial Nerves
• The 12 pairs of cranial nerves primarily serve the head
and neck.
• The cranial nerves are described by name, number,
course, and major function.
• Most cranial nerves are mixed nerves; however, three
pairs, the optic, olfactory, and vestibulocochlear
nerves, are purely sensory in function.
Spinal Nerves and
Nerve Plexus
• The 32 pairs of human spinal nerves are formed by the
combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal
cord.
• Almost immediately after being formed, each spinal nerve
divides into dorsal and ventral rami, making each spinal
nerve only about ½ inch long.
• The rami, like the spinal nerves, contain both motor and
sensory fibers. Thus, damage to a spinal nerve results both in
loss of sensation and flaccid paralysis of the area.
• The ventral rami of all other spinal nerves from complex
networks of nerves called plexus, which serve motor and
sensory needs of the limbs.
Autonomic Nervous System
• Is the motor subdivision of the PNS that controls body
activities automatically.
• It is composed of a special group of neurons that
regulate cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and
glands.
• At every moment, signals flood from the visceral
organs into the CNS, and the autonomic nerves make
adjustments as necessary to best support body
activities.
• The autonomic nervous system has two arms, the
sympathetic and the parasympathetic
• Both serve the same organs but cause essentially opposite
effects, counterbalancing each other’s activities.
• The sympathetic division mobilizes the body during extreme
situations (such as fear, exercise, or rage), “fight or flight”
response.
• Examples: Pounding heart, rapid, deep breathing; cold,
sweaty skin, dilated pupils.
• The parasympathetic division allows us to “unwind” and
conserve energy, “resting and digesting” system.
• Example: relaxing after a meal, digestion and elimination
Autonomic Functioning
• Body organs served by the ANS receive fibers from both divisions.
• Exceptions are the most blood vessels and most structures f the
skin, some glands, and the adrenal medulla, all of which receive
only sympathetic.
• Both division has opposite effects mainly because they release
different neurotransmitters.
• The parasympathetic fibers called cholinergic fibers, release
acetylcholine.
• The sympathetic fibers called adrenergic fibers, release
norepinephrine.
Developmental Aspects of the Nervous System
• Nervous system is formed in the first month of the embryonic period,
therefore, any infection early in the pregnancy can have harmful
effects (ex. Measles).
• Lack of oxygen for a few minutes leads to death of neurons (ex,
smoking, radiation and various drugs).
• Last area to mature is the hypothalamus. For this reason, premature
babies usually have problems in controlling temperature.
• The brain reaches its maximum weight in the young adult. Neurons
are irreversible (not replaced or healed when damaged or die).
• As we become older, sympathetic nervous system becomes less
efficient.