NERVOUS SYSTEM

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 Nervous System

• The nervous system is a network of tissues that communicate via electro-chemical signals.
• It is responsible for receiving and processing information in the body.
• Gathers information from both inside and outside the body - Sensory Function
• Processes the information in the brain and spine, Integration of body processes.
• Sends information to the muscles, glands, and organs so they can respond appropriately, - Motor
Function
• Response to stimuli
• It controls and coordinates all essential functions of the body including all other body systems al-
lowing the body to maintain its proper functioning and balance.
The nervous system is divided into three main branches: -
• Autonomic Nervous System
• Peripheral Nervous System
• Central Nervous System

The Autonomic Nervous System

• The autonomic nervous system consists of nerves that connect the central nervous system to the
heart, blood vessels, glands, and smooth muscles.

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• The autonomic nervous system controls all the automatic (involuntary) functions in the body, includ-
ing breathing, digestion, sweating, and heartbeat.
• The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous sys-
tems.
• The parasympathetic nervous system becomes active during states of relaxation. It helps the body
to conserve and store energy. It slows heartbeat, decreases blood pressure, and promotes the di-
gestive process.
• The sympathetic nervous system gets the body ready for emergency action. It is involved in the
fight-or-flight response, which is the sudden reaction to stressful or threatening situations.

Peripheral Nervous System

The Peripheral nervous system is comprised of all the nerves that are present outside the brain
and spinal cord. These include:
Cranial Nerves: 12 pairs that are attached to the surface under the brain.
Spinal Nerves: 31 pairs that are attached to the spinal cord.
⇒ This is further divided into two types based on two different functions:
o The somatic nervous system –
Relays information from the skin, sensory organs, & muscles to the Central Nervous System (Brain
and Spinal cord)
It also carries the responses from the CNS to the skeletal muscles for voluntary responses.
o The autonomic nervous system

⨁ Note

Afferent nerves carry messages from the muscles and sense organs to the central nervous system.
Efferent nerves carry messages from the central nervous system to the muscles and sense organs.

Neuron
• Neurons, act as the communicators of the nervous system. Neurons receive information, integrate it,
and pass it along. They communicate with one another, with cells in the sensory organs, and with
muscles and glands.

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 Structure of Neuron
• Each neuron has a soma, or cell body, which is
the central area of the neuron. It contains the
nucleus and other structures common to all cells
in the body, such as mitochondria.
• Highly branched fibres that reach out from the
neuron
are called dendritic trees.
Each branch is called a dendrite. Dendrites re-
ceive information from other neurons or from
sense organs.
• The single long fibre that extends from the neu-
ron is called an axon. Axons send information to
other neurons,
• to muscle cells, or to gland cells
• Some of these axons have a coating called
the myelin sheath. This is dense lipid layer which
insulates the axon – makes the axon look gray
• The gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath is called
the Node of Ranvier.
• The cells which produce the myelin or fat layer in
the Peripheral Nervous System are called
Schwann Cells.
• Nerve transmission can get damaged when myelin
sheaths disintegrate.
• At the end of each axon lie bumps called terminal buttons. Terminal buttons release neurotransmit-
ters which are chemicals that can cross over to neighbouring neurons and activate them.
• The junction between an axon of one neuron and the cell body or dendrite of a neighbouring neu-
ron is called a synapse.

⨁ Note to Remember

Synapse
It is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or
chemical signal to another neuron or to the target effector cell.
Neurotransmitters
It is a type of chemical messenger which transmits signals across a chemical
synapse, such as a neuromuscular junction, from one neuron (nerve cell) to
another "target" neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell.

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 Components of Reflex Arc
• Receptor - reacts to a stimulus
• Afferent pathway (sensory neuron) - conducts impulses to the CNS
• Interneuron - consists of one or more synapses in the CNS (most are in the spine)
• Efferent pathway (motor neuron) conducts impulses from CNS to effector.
• Effector - muscle fibers (as in the Hamstring muscle) or glands responds by contracting or secreting
a product.
• Spinal reflexes - initiated and completed at the spinal cord level. Occur without the involvement of
higher brain centers.

The Types of Neurons

There are three types of Neurons, namely:

Sensory neurons
• Transmits the information from a source to the Central Nervous System
Example: When you touch a hot surface with your fingertips, the sensory neurons
will be the ones firing and sending off signals to the rest of the nervous system
about the information they have received.

Motor neurons
• Motor neurons have a long axon and short dendrites and transmit messages from
the Central Nervous System to the muscles.
Those that travel from spinal cord to muscle are called lower motor neurons.
Those that travel between the brain and spinal cord are called upper motor neurons.
Interneurons
These neurons exist and function between sensory & motor neurons in the CNS.

Impulses
• A stimulus is a change in the environment with sufficient strength to initiate a response.
• Excitability is the ability of a neuron to respond to the stimulus and convert it into a nerve impulse

Central Nervous System

• The central nervous system receives and processes information from the senses.
• The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system. Both the brain, and the spinal
cord lie in a fluid called the cerebrospinal fluid, which cushions and nourishes the brain.
• The body is connected to the brain by the spinal cord, through a network of nerves.
• It runs from the brain down to the small of the back and is responsible for spinal reflexes, which
are automatic behaviours that require no input from the brain.

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• The spinal cord is responsible for communication and coordination between the brain, and the
body. It sends messages from the brain to the other parts of the body, and from those parts back
to the brain.
• The brain is the main organ in the nervous system. It integrates information from the senses and
coordinates the body’s activities.

Components of the Central Nervous System

Brain
• Forebrain: Cerebrum, Diencephalon – Thalamus & Hypothalamus
• Mid Brain: Pons, Corpora Quadrigemina, Cerebral Peduncles
• Hind Brain: Cerebellum, Medulla Oblongata

Spine
• Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is protected by two connective tissue coverings,
the meninges and vertebrae, and a cushion of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

⇒ Meninges
Meninges are the three coverings around the brain & spine and help cushion, protect, and nourish the
brain and spinal cord.
Dura mater is the most outer layer, very tough
Arachnoid mater is the middle layer and adheres to the dura mater and has weblike attachments to
the innermost layer
Pia mater is very thin, transparent, but tough, and covers the entire brain, following it into all its crev-
ices (sulci) and spinal cord
cerebrospinal fluid, which buffers, nourishes, and detoxifies the brain and spinal cord, flows through
the subarachnoid space, between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater

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 The Human Brain

Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
• The hindbrain is composed of the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum.
• The medulla lies next to the spinal cord and controls functions outside conscious control, such as
breathing and blood flow. It also controls vital reflexes as heart beat and respiration, for autonomic
(involuntary) functions ranging from vomiting to sneezing.
• The pons affects activities such as sleeping, waking, and dreaming.
• The cerebellum receives information from the sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other parts of
the brain and then regulates motor movements. The cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements

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 such as posture, balance, coordination, and speech, resulting in smooth and balanced muscular ac-
tivity.

Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
• The midbrain is the part of the brain that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain.
• The midbrain helps us to locate events in space.
• It also contains a system of neurons that releases the neurotransmitter dopamine.

Forebrain (Prosencephalon)
The biggest and most complex part of the brain is the forebrain, which includes:
o Thalamus
o Hypothalamus
o Limbic system
o Cerebrum

• T h a l a m u s – Brain’s switchboard, it’s a sensory way-station. filters and then relays information
to various brain regions. The main function of the thalamus is to relay motor and sensory signals
to the cerebral cortex. All sensory information except smell-related data must go through the thala-
mus on the way to the cerebrum.
• H y p o t h a l a m u s It lies under the thalamus and helps to control the pituitary gland and the
autonomic nervous system. The hypothalamus plays an important role in regulating activities, inter-
nal organs, monitoring information from the autonomic nervous system, regulating body temperature
and biological drives such as hunger, thirst, sleep etc.
• Limbic system It includes the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the septum. The limbic
system processes emotional experience & emotional memory.
• C e r e b r u m The biggest part of the brain, controls complex processes such as abstract thought
and learning, perception, intelligence, reasoning, emotion, thought, and planning. The wrinkled, highly
folded outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex. The cerebrum is divided into right
and left hemispheres that are connected by an arch of white matter called the corpus callosum.
• Broca’s a r e a It is located in the frontal lobe – important in the production of speech
• Wernicke’s a r e a Comprehension of language and the production of meaningful speech

Lobes of the Cerebrum

• Frontal – motor area involved in movement and in planning & coordinating behavior
• Parietal – sensory processing, attention, and language
• Temporal – auditory perception, speech, and complex visual perceptions
• Occipital – visual center – plays a role in processing visual information

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 Brain Waves
• Brain waves are rhythmic fluctuation of electric potential between parts of the brain as seen on an
electroencephalogram (EEG).
• To measure brain waves electrodes are placed onto the scalp using the EEG.
• There are four types of brainwaves:
Beta: Awake, normal alert
Alpha: Relaxed, calm, meditation, creative visualization
Theta: Deep relaxation and meditation, problem solving
Delta: Deep, dreamless sleep