INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL

SCIENCE
(ANSCI 42)

Prepared by: Angelica P. Maderse, Msc

email ad: f.angelica.maderse@cmu.edu.ph

contact number: 997-7958-848

 Unit 2. Physiology of Farm Animals

Definition of Terms
• Anatomy- the science that deals with form and structure of animals.
➢Derived from the greek word Ana tome “ to cut up/ dissection”
• Physiology- study of functions of body parts of the living organisms.
• Although there is considerable variation among the species within the
domestic farm animals but similarities in form (anatomy) and functions
(physiology) are exhibited.
Anatomical Directional Terms
Anatomical Terms
❑The following terms are used to describe locations on the animal
body.
a) Dorsal: pertains to the upper surface of the animal.
b) Ventral: relates to the lower and abdominal surface.
c) Cranial (or anterior): applies to the front or head.
d) Caudal (or posterior): pertains to the tail or rear.
Median Plane -is an imaginary
plane dividing the body into equal
right and left halves.

Sagittal Plane –any parallel to the

median plane.
External Parts of Hog
External Parts of Rooster
External Parts of Beef Cattle
External Parts of Sheep
External Parts of Goat
External Parts of Horse
 Body Systems of Farm Animal
❑Nervous and Endocrine system
❑Circulatory
❑Respiratory
❑Excretory
❑Reproductive
❑Integumentary, Muscular and
• Skeletal System
 Nervous System

o is the part of an animal that coordinates its actions

by transmitting nerve impulses or signals to and
from different parts of its body.
o Body’s command center
o Provide quickest means of communication within
the body
o Nerve cells are interconnected in very complex
way (sometimes transmit and store information)
 Basic Functions of Nervous system
❑Initiate and/or regulate movement of body
❑ Regulate secretions from glands
❑ Gather information about the external environment and about the
status of the internal environment of the body
❑ Maintain an appropriate state of consciousness
❑ Stimulate thirst, hunger, fear, rage, and sexual behaviors appropriate
for survival
Nerves
 I. CNS: Brain
• an organ that serves as the center of the
nervous system in all vertebrate and most
invertebrate animals.
• is located in the head, usually close to the
sensory organs for senses such as vision.
• Divided into three parts:
- Forebrain (cerebrum, diencephalon)
- Midbrain
- Hindbrain (Cerebellum, the pons,
Medulls oblongata)
A. Forebrain
1. Cerebrum- seat of intelligence
▪ Consist of: Outer cerebral cortex, internal region of cerebral white matter, and
nuclei, masses of gray matter deep within the white matter.
▪ Gray matter- where neurons form synapse with one another (integrates in/out
information)
2. Diencephalon consist of:
➢ Thalamus- relay almost all sensory input to the cerebral cortex
➢Hypothalamus- Controls and integrates activities of the autonomic nervous
system and pituitary gland; Regulates emotional and behavioral patterns.
;Controls body temperature and regulates eating and drinking behavior;
Helps maintain the waking state and establishes patterns of sleep; Produces
hormones.
➢ Pineal gland- Secretes melatonin, sets the body’s biological clock.
B. Midbrain- involves with sight, hearing, muscle control and body position.
C. Hindbrain – consist of :
▪ Cerebellum, the pons and medulla oblongata
▪ Involves with complicated movements of
body, control circulation and respiration and
awareness in surrounding
a) Cerebellum- regulates posture and balance,
role in cognition and language processing
b) Medulla oblongata- relays motor and
sensory impulses between other parts of
brain and spinal cord.
c) The Pons- Relays impulses between
cerebral cortex and cerebellum and between
the medulla and midbrain.
▪ Pneumotaxic and apneustic area, together
with the medulla oblongata, help control
breathing
II. Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord is a long, thin,
tubular structure made up of
nervous tissue, that extends from
the medulla oblongata in the
brainstem to the lumbar region of
the vertebral column.
 Two Major Functions of Spinal Cord
❑To transmit impulses to and from the brain
❑To house spinal reflexes.
❖Ascending tracts- carrying sensory information to the brain
❖ Descending tracts- carry motor information from the brain
❖Note: names that identify nerve tracts identify the origin and termination
of the fibers in the tract.
 III. Nerves

o A nerve is a bundle of hundreds to thousands of axons

plus associated connective tissue and blood vessels that
lie outside the brain and spinal cord.
o The nervous system is a complex collection
of nerves and specialized cells known as neurons that
transmit signals between different parts of the body.
 Types of Neurons
▪ Neurons vary in structure, function, and
genetic makeup.
▪ Given the sheer number of neurons,
there are thousands of different types,
much like there are thousands of
species of living organisms on Earth.

o Sensory neurons- afferent neurons

o Motor neurons- efferent neurons
o Inter neurons- intermediary neurons
Motor neurons play a role in movement, including
voluntary and involuntary movements.
❖ These neurons allow the brain and spinal cord to
communicate with muscles, organs, and glands
all over the body.
Example: Movement of food from esophagus to
stomach to intestine.
 Example: Sensory neurons receive information from the
sensory receptors.
❑Inter-neuron
❑Neural intermediaries
found in the brain and
spinal cord.
❑Pass signal from sensory
neurons and other
interneurons to motor
neurons.
Synapse
▪ site of communication between two neurons or
between neuron and an effector cell”
▪ permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an
electrical or chemical signal to another neuron
or to the target effector cell.
• Synaptic Transmission - This is the process
by which the impulse in the presynaptic neuron
is transmitted across the synaptic cleft to the
postsynaptic neuron.
• Two types:
❖Electrical synaptic transmission
❖Chemical synaptic transmission
Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that enable
neurotransmission.
• It is a type of chemical messenger which transmits signals
across a chemical synapse, such as a neuromuscular
junction, from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target"
neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell.
• Examples : acetylcholine, glutamate, norepinephrine,
dopamine, epinephrine, histamine (excitatory), GABA,
serotonin, glycine (inhibitory)
The Neurons in Nervous System

❑ Neurons are electrically excitable cells in

the nervous system that function to
process and transmit information.

❑ Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure

depending on their role and location.
❑ However, nearly all neurons have three
essential parts: a cell body, an axon, and
dendrites.
Neuron: Parts
❖Cell body (soma)- carries genetic information, maintains the
neuron’s structure, and provides energy to drive activities.
❖Axon
▪ is a long, tail-like structure which joins the cell body at a
specialized junction called the axon hillock. Many axons are
insulated with a fatty substance called myelin which helps
axons to conduct an electrical signal.
• Dendrites
❖are fibrous roots that branch out from the cell body.
❖receive and process signals from the axons of other neurons.
❖ Example: Purkinje cells are a special type of neuron found in
the cerebellum.
❖These cells have highly developed dendritic trees which allow
them to receive thousands of signals.
Peripheral Nervous System
• consists of the cranial and spinal nerves that arise
from the central nervous system and travel to the
remainder of the body.
• consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the brain
and spinal cord.
• Divided into two functional systems
❑Somatic Nervous System
❑ Autonomic Nervous System
Somatic NS
➢Transmits sensory and motor signals to and from the central
nervous system, and therefore, it consists of motor neurons
and sensory neurons.
➢controls voluntary movements, transmits and receives
messages from the senses and is involved in reflex actions
without the involvement of the CNS so the reflex can occur
very quickly.
• For example, imagine that you are out for a jog in the park
one brisk winter morning. As you run, you spot a patch of
slick ice on the path ahead. Your visual system perceives the
icy patch and relays this information to your brain. Your brain
then sends signals to engage your muscles to take action.
Autonomic Nervous System
❖part of the nervous system
responsible for control of the bodily
functions not consciously directed,
such as breathing, the heartbeat,
and digestive processes.
❖has the task of maintaining
homeostasis of visceral activities
without conscious effort.
 General Characteristics of ANS
The autonomic nervous system includes
two divisions: the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions, which exert
opposing effects on target organs.
➢The parasympathetic division operates
under normal conditions.
➢The sympathetic division operates under
conditions of stress or emergency.
 Parasympathetic Nervous System
❑Sometimes called the “rest and
digest system”
❑Counteract fight or– flight response
❑conserves energy as it slows the heart
rate, increases intestinal and gland
activity, and relaxes sphincter muscles
in the gastrointestinal tract.
 Sympathetic Nervous System

➢Operates involuntary response

under conditions of stress or
emergency
 Endocrine System
• Made up of ductless glands which are sites
of production of hormones uses for a wide
range of functions. These control many
different bodily functions, including:
▪ Respiration
▪ Metabolism
▪ Reproduction
▪ Sensory perception
▪ Movement
▪ Sexual development
▪ Growth
Hormones
• are the body’s chemical messengers and are part of the
endocrine system which travel through the bloodstream to
tissues and organs, and control most of our body’s major
systems.
 Common hormones and glands
Hormone Gland produced in Role
Thyroid hormone Thyroid Regulates metabolism

Adrenaline (epinephrine) Adrenal gland Involved in "fight or flight" response

Involved in "fight or flight" response,

Cortisol Adrenal gland regulates metabolism and immune
responses

Sexual and reproductive

Estrogen Ovaries
development, mainly in women

Testes, sometimes adrenal glands or Sexual and reproductive

Testosterone
ovaries development, mainly in men

Insulin Pancreas Blood sugar regulation, fat storage

Glucagon Pancreas Blood sugar regulation

 Regulation of Endocrine System

❑Regulated through
negative feedback
mechanisms.
Example: A produces
substance B to effect C
until C sends a signal
back to A telling it that it
has enough substance B,
in turn, A stops producing
substance B.
Hormones: three basic types

1. steroid hormones: are lipid originally synthesized from cholesterol

• There are more than 20 steroid hormones in the body, ie. cortisol,
cortisone, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone.
• Steroids are produced by the gonads (sex hormones) and by the
adrenal cortex.
2. Proteins: are made of amino acids linked by peptide chains.
• Most of the hormones are proteins. ie. calcitonin from the thyroid
gland and the hormones from the pituitary gland, pancreas, and
the parathyroid glands.
• Protein hormones must be injected IV, IP, or IM since oral
administration results in cleavage of the peptide bonds by digestion.
 Hormones: three basic types
3. amines: are also produced from amino acids.
❖ contain carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen.
❖always have an amine group (-NH2)
❖Examples of amines are: epinephrine and norepinephrine
from the adrenal gland, thyroxin from the thyroid gland.
• amines can be taken orally or IV if a faster action is desired.
• Note: epinephrine may be used as an inhalant to relax the
ductules of the lungs.
Function of Hormones
oto speed up or slow down cellular processes at the target
tissue.
oHormones usually affect cells in one, or more of the following
ways:
i. alter plasma membrane permeability and/or electrical
state by opening or closing ion channels.
ii. stimulate the synthesis of proteins or regulatory
molecules within the target cell.
iii. activate or deactivate enzymes
iv. induce secretory activity
Hormone functioning: The hormone insulin binds to its receptor (1), which starts
many protein activation cascades (2). These include translocation of Glut-4
transporter to the plasma membrane and influx of glucose (3), glycogen synthesis
(4), glycolysis (5), and triglyceride (6).
See supplementary notes for sample
of Hormones and Principal
Functions