THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Phineas Gage
Schizophrenia
Aphasia
• The nervous system is a complex collection of specialized cells
(neurons) that transmits and coordinates information from different parts
of the body to different parts of the brain.
• It is responsible for communication, cognition, affect and most
behaviours
• The nervous system has three main functions:
• Detecting and gathering information from the environment – sensory function
• Processing and transmitting information in the brain and spine – Integration
function
• Sends information to the muscles, glands and organs in order for a response to be
appropriately given – Motor function
• The Nervous System has two main divisions:
• Central nervous system: this is made up of the brain and spine
• Peripheral nervous system: autonomic and somatic nervous system
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The central nervous system is the largest part of the nervous system that
controls behaviour
• This part of the body is made up of the brain and the spine (spinal cord)
• The spinal cord receives sensory signals and sends them to the brain for
processing and send information back to the body.
• The central nervous system is separated from the other parts of the body
via the blood brain barrier (BBB)
• The BBB prevents toxins from entering the brain. The brain is also
surrounded by the cerebrospinal fluid that prevents the brain from
damage despite head movements
• The Central Nervous System is further composed of:
• Spine
• Spinal cord
• Brain: the side view of the brain reveals three basic parts. These are:
• Brainstem – medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain
• Cerebellum
• Cerebrum
• However, the brain is divided into three parts. These are the forebrain,
midbrain and hindbrain
BRAIN DIVISIONS, STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

• The three main parts of the brain include:

• The FOREBRAIN is the fore part of the brain responsible for
advanced intellectual abilities. It is responsible for higher mental
processes.
• The largest part of the forebrain is the cerebrum (cerebral cortex). This
part of the forebrain responsible for sensory processing and higher
brain functions
• There are subcortical structures that lie beneath the cerebral cortex
and these include the thalamus, hypothalamus and limbic system.
 FOREBRAIN

• The cerebral cortex is the outer surface of the brain responsible for the
brain’s executive functioning (coordinating, language, reasoning, memory,
planning and problem solving).
• The cortex has two hemispheres
• Left hemisphere: which controls sensory and motor functions of the right side of the
body. It is responsible for language and verbal skills, grammar and vocabulary.
• Right hemisphere: this hemisphere controls the left side of the body and is
responsible for visual and spatial relations as well as perceptions.
• The is a bundle of axons (nerves) that connects these two hemispheres and
enables them to communicate. This is called the corpus callosum.
• Each hemisphere is further divided into four lobes
 FOUR LOBES OF THE BRAIN

• Frontal lobe – it is responsible for executive functions such as planning, judgment,

attention, coordination and decision making. It is also plays a role in motor activity
• Temporal lobe – this is chiefly responsible for auditory perception (hearing),
speech as well as vision and memory. Damage to this brain region can impair
comprehension of speech and ability to determine the direction from which sound
is coming.
• Parietal lobe – this lobe is involves in body sensations and sensory processing such
as pain, cold, heat, touch and body movements. It also plays a role in attention and
language.
• Occipital lobe – this contains the visual area of the brain. Damage to the occipital
lobe can produce blindness or an inability to recognize objects by sight.
 FOREBRAIN
DIENCEPHALON
• THALAMUS
• It relays sensory impulses from all the sense organs except the
olfactory (sense of smell) to and from the brain.
• The thalamus is the gateway of all sensory signals to the cortex it is
therefore regarded as the ‘sensory gateway’ to the cortex
• The thalamus closes its gate during sleep so that the brain can rest
• Sensory signals are received as sensations from the sense organs and
interpreted by the cortex
 FOREBRAIN
DIENCEPHALON
• HYPOTHALAMUS
• This structure lies below the thalamus and regulates important
autonomic body functions such as temperature, hunger, thirst and
sexual activity. It is also essential in motivation.
• It also plays a role in releasing hormones from the pituitary gland
• The hypothalamus helps the body to be in a state of homeostasis –
regulating body temperature etc.
 FOREBRAIN
• LIMBIC SYSTEM (amygdala and hippocampus)
• They are basically associated with emotional states such as happiness,
fear and aggression.
• It is also responsible for memory
• Damage to the limbic system has being implicated in forming new
memories
 MIDBRAIN (MESENCEPHALON)

• This region of the brain is basically responsible for movement, thus motor
control.
• It relays sensory and motor messages between the spinal cord and the
forebrain.
• It connects the forebrain and hindbrain as well as helps in engaging in
rewarding behaviours (addiction)
• The midbrain contains the substancia nigra which is the structure that produces
dopamine (Dopamine factory) for reward behaviours.
• Damage to this area of the brain has being implicated in Parkinson's disease –
a condition resulting from the degeneration of the midbrain with rigidity in
neck, tremors with victims becoming paralysed in severe cases.
 THE HINDBRAIN

• Hindbrain is the most primitive part of the brain thus it is the oldest
part of the brain (shared with other animals)
• The hindbrain contains the cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata
• The cerebellum (little brain): chiefly responsible for balance and
coordination of movement. It stimulates the movement of muscles and
body posture. It is also involved in learning motor skills (fine and
gross)
• The Pons: it connects the medulla to the midbrain and relays signals
from the forebrain to the cerebellum. It also plays a role in respiration
and inhibitions.
 HINDBRAIN

• Medulla Oblongata: it controls vital functions like respiration,

digestion, heartbeat, breathing, eating, sleeping, swallowing, blood
pressure and coughing and it is sensitive to alcohol.
• The brainstem is however made up of the pons, medulla and midbrain.
It is responsible for vital functions that keeps us alive. Damage to the
brainstem could result in death.
 RECTICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM

• Reticular Activating System (RAS): it is a structure located in the

brainstem that projects directly into the cortex.
• Anteriorly it is connected to the hypothalamus and thalamus in the
posterior
• It is responsible for attention, alertness, wakefulness and arousal.
• The RAS filters data that is around us and allows the brain process
information effectively or slows down information in order to enhance
sleep.
• A damage to RAS could lead to lethargy, insomnia (sleep problems) or
unconsciousness (coma).
 SPINAL CORD

• It is an extension of the brainstem in the body that lies under the

medulla oblongata
• It sends signals from the body parts to the brain and from the brain to
the body parts
• It controls posture and other fundamental movements
• Damage to the spinal cord interferes with how messages are
exchanged between the brain and body parts. It also leads to
anesthesia (lack of feeling) in the skin and muscles due to the cut off
of response from the brain.
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The peripheral nervous system is made up of all nerve cells outside the
central nervous system.
• There are nerves that branch from the spinal cord (spinal nerves – 31
in number) and nerves emerging from the brain (cranial nerves -12 in
number). These are nerves considered separately from those in the
central nervous system.
• Together these separate nerves make up the peripheral nervous system.
They are about 43 pairs of these nerves.
• This part of the nervous system is made up of the somatic and
autonomic nervous systems.
• AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: it is responsible for regulating
the body’s internal environment and involuntary movement in the body.
• Autonomic nervous system is engaged in involuntary behaviours eg
blinking, blood pressure.
• It stimulates our internal organs and controls vital functions like the
heart rate, respiration and breathing as well as digestion. They control
body processes that are not under the voluntary control of a person.
• The autonomic nervous system is further divided into
• Sympathetic – aroused in fear, tension, anxiety and fight or flight responses
• Parasympathetic – enables one to rest or relax
• The sympathetic nervous system (Fight or flight response system):
its responsible for general alertness and the body’s way of responding
to threat. It causes increased heart rate, blood pressure, energy and
dilation of pupils in the face of a perceived threat.
• Parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest response system):
it is responsible for restoring the body to a calm and resting state. It
helps in digestion, salivation and decreases heart rate and blood
pressure.
• How does the following CNS structures relate to the autonomic
nervous system:
• Brainstem
• Cortex
• Hypothalamus
• Spinal cord
 DRUGS THAT AFFECT THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• These drugs are often referred to as psychoactive substances because

they act and alter or change how the nervous system works.
• It mostly affects the CNS and alters mood, perception, cognition and
behaviour.
• Psychoactive substances include:
• Alcohol (depressant) – alcohol depresses or slows down the functioning of the
central nervous system. It affects the cerebral cortex, hippocampus,
hypothalamus, amygdala, cerebellum, occipital lobe and frontal lobes.
• Caffeine (stimulant) – it speeds up the functioning of the central nervous
system keeping one alert. Areas of the brain affected include the hypothalamus,
hippocampus.
• Marijuana – it affects the cerebellum, cerebral cortex, hippocampus and basal
ganglia, hypothalamus, amygdala, parietal lobe and brain stem
• Nicotine (stimulant) – this drugs affects CNS regions including hippocampus,
cortex, hypothalamus
• Cocaine (stimulant) – this substance speeds up CNS functions and largely
affects the limbic system, frontal lobes, basal ganglia, hypothalamus.
• Heroin – it affects the limbic system
• Opioids (tramadol) - these are analgesics (pain relievers) that produce
relaxing effects. When ingested they act on brain structures such as the
brainstem, amygdala, cerebral cortex and hypothalamus
 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Alzheimer’s Disease – memory
• Dementia – loss pf memory
• Parkinson’s Disease – problem with nerves controls movement. It causes rigidity in muscles, tremors,
difficulty walking, slowed movement and coordination, memory loss
• Huntington – genetic disease that breaks down the NS. Uncontrolled jerky movements, mental
degeneration, memory loss and personality changes.
• Shingles – nerves to the skin (dormancy of virus in NS after chicken pox infection)
• Cerebral Palsy – reduced blood or oxygen supply to the white matter . movement, jerkiness
• Stroke – ischemic
• Epilepsy – Multiple seizures due to abnormal activity (firing of neurons)
• Seizures – abnormal electrical activity in the brain
• Multiple Sclerosis – eats away the sheath that covers the axons of the nerves , affects vision, sensation,
bladder and bowel control, thinking and balance.