Lesson 1 - Nervous System

FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• It serves as the center of all mental activities, including learning, memory, thinking, and speech.
• It receives, examines, and processes data and initiates appropriate response.
• It controls and regulates all activities within the human body.
• With the help of the endocrine system, it regulates and maintains homeostasis.
• It keeps us in touch with the external environment

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Regulates and coordinates the activities of all the organ systems of the body. It enables the body to adjust to
the changes that occur within itself and the its surroundings.

TWO MAJOR DIVISION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Central Nervous System

 The CNS is composed of the brain and the spinal cord.

 Receives and processes all the information from all parts of the body
 Controls the entire organ system of the body.

BRAIN

• The brain is an organ of nervous tissue that is responsible for responses, sensation,
movement, emotions, communication, thought processing, and memory.
• It is composed of the brainstem, the cerebellum, and the cerebrum.
• The control center of the Nervous System.

PARTS OF THE BRAIN

Cerebrum
It regulates mental functions such as understanding, remembering, speaking, learning, and
reasoning
Prefrontal Cortex
Intelligently regulates our thoughts, actions and emotions through extensive connections
with other brain regions
Pituitary Glands
It releases hormones which are special chemicals that trigger certain actions in the body.
Brainstem
It controls the basic function such as breathing rate and heartbeat. It contain nerve centers
involved in hearing and vision
Amygdala
Primarily involved in the processing of emotions and memories associated with fear.
Hypothalamus
It monitors your body’s internal temperature.
Cerebellum
Controls balance or equilibrium and locomotion.
Hippocampus
It helps you to remember things that happened recently

SPINAL CORD
• Is a large, ropelike segment of nerve tissue extending from the medulla oblangata to the
vertebral column.
• It serves as the connector mechanism for spinal reflexes and the connecting link between the
PNS and the brain.
 2. Peripheral Nervous System
 Carries impulses from the sensory nerves to the CNS and from the CNS to the motor nerves.
 The PNS composed of all nerves that connects the CNS with every part of the body

Division of PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Somatic Nervous System

• Regulates the activities that are under conscious control.

• Consist of the cranial and spinal nerves, which influence the skeletal, muscle, skin, and other
internal organs.
Division of Somatic Nervous System

1. Spinal Nerves
- It carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and the body
2. Cranial Nerves
- Are nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem.

Autonomic Nervous System

• Controls involuntary activities such as breathing, urination, heartbeat, digestion, salivation.

• The ANS governs most of the body’s homeostatic mechanisms: The sympathetic and
parasympathetic mechanism.
• The ANS is divided into two subdivision, parasympathetic and parasympathetic.
Division of AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Parasympathetic Nervous System

- It maintains body functions and restores the body to normal or relaxed mode.
2. Sympathetic Nervous System
- is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress. (e.g., increased heart rate
and breathing, dilation of pupil, sweating)

The Nerve Cells

• The nerve cell is the basic unit of the nervous system, and it is also called as neuron.
• They are the fundamental units that send and receive signals which allow us to move our muscles, feel the
external world, think, form memories and much more.

Types of Nerve Cell

Sensory Neurons
• Carry impulses from the sense organs to the brain or spinal cord.
Motor Neurons
• Carry impulses from the brain or spinal cord to the muscles.
Associative neurons/Interneurons
• Located at the Central Nervous system, process the impulses from the sensory neurons and then relay
directives to motor
 A reflex action
also known as a reflex, is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a
stimulus.
Stimulus - Any changes in the environment which causes us to react.
Response - The body’s response to stimulus.
A reflex arc
is a neural pathway that controls a reflex.

How Nervous System coordinates and regulates feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis?
• The nervous system and endocrine system are working together to maintain body’s homeostasis

Homeostasis
is the state reached when each part of the body functions in equilibrium with other parts. This is attained
through the regulation of the bodily functions by the endocrine and nervous systems.

Lesson 2 – Endocrine System

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:

The endocrine system is composed of different glands which secrete hormones that regulate metabolism,
growth and development, mood, and reproduction.

FUNCTION OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream. This lets the hormones travel to cells in other
parts of the body.
 The endocrine hormones help control mood, growth and development, the way our organs work,
metabolism , and reproduction.
 The endocrine system regulates how much of each hormone is released
HORMONES

 are organic substances released by the glands of the endocrine system directly into the bloodstream.
 They work slowly, over time, and affect many different processes, including:
 Growth and development
 Metabolism - how your body gets energy from the foods you eat
 Sexual function
 Reproduction
 Mood

What Are the Parts of the Endocrine System?

Pituitary Glands

FUNCTION:

 Produces hormones that stimulate growth and controls the functions of other glands.

HORMONE: Oxytocin, Growth Hormones (GH), Prolactin (PRL), Luteinizing Hormone(LH), Follicle
Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), Antidiuretic hormone (AH)

a. Growth Hormone (GH): Stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration in humans and
other animals. It is crucial for childhood growth and maintaining healthy body composition in adults.

b. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, a stress
hormone involved in metabolism, immune response, and stress regulation.

c. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones (T3
and T4), which regulate metabolism, growth, and energy balance.

d. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): In females, it stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles and
secretion of estrogen. In males, it stimulates sperm production in the testes.

e. Luteinizing Hormone (LH): In females, it triggers ovulation and stimulates the production of
progesterone by the corpus luteum. In males, it stimulates the production of testosterone by the
testes.

f. Prolactin (PRL): Stimulates milk production (lactation) in females, and in males, it has been
associated with various functions including reproductive behavior and immune regulation.

g. Endorphins: Act as natural painkillers and are involved in the regulation of mood.

Posterior Pituitary Hormones:

a. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin: Regulates water balance in the body by controlling
the reabsorption of water in the kidneys, thus influencing urine concentration and blood
pressure.

b. Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and promotes milk ejection during
breastfeeding. It also plays a role in social bonding, trust, and empathy.
THYROID GLANDS

FUNCTION:

 Controls body cell metabolism

HORMONE:

Thyroid hormone

PARATHYROID GLANDS

FUNCTION:

 Produces hormones that control the calcium levels in your body and normalizes bone growth.

HORMONE:

Parathormone

PARATHYROID GLANDS

FUNCTION:

 Produces hormones that control the calcium levels in your body and normalizes bone growth.

HORMONE:

Parathormone

ADRENAL GLAND

FUNCTION:

 Produces hormones that affects metabolism, immune system and blood pressure, stress
reaction.

HORMONE:

Adrenaline and others

PANCREAS

FUNCTION:

 Produce hormones that regulate blood sugar levels.

HORMONE:

Insulin, Glucagon

TESTES (MALE)

FUNCTION:

 Produces hormones that control maturation of sperm and development of the secondary male
sexual characteristics;

HORMONE:

TESTOSTERONE
 OVARIES (FEMALE)

FUNCTION:

 Produces hormones that influence the development of the secondary female sexual
characteristics, and maturation of the egg cells and ovulation

HORMONE: estrogen

PINEAL GLAND

FUNCTION:

 Produces a hormone that regulates the biological clock in some animals.

HORMONE:

MELATONIN

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM DISORDERS

Osteoporosis

• is a disease that happens when the mineral density of the bone is reduced making it brittle and porous.
Parathyroid hormone secretion is one of the possible causes of this disease.

GOITER

• is an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland. It results from the underproduction or overproduction of
thyroid hormones.

GIGANTISM

• is a disorder that happens during childhood when there is abnormal increase in height associated with too
much secretion of growth hormones.

DWARFISM

• is a condition wherein the production of growth hormones in the pituitary gland is insufficient resulting in
short stature.

Lesson 3 – Human Reproductive System

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Function:

a. Secretion of the male sex hormones.

b. Production of sperm cells.

c. Release of sperm cells.

PARTS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Penis
It is the external sex organ that allows the transfer of the semen into the vagina of the female.
Testes
The male gonads
The chief male reproductive organs
Produces the sperm cell.
Scrotum
Sac of skin that holds the testis
Seminiferous tubules
 are lined by a complex stratified epithelium containing two distinct populations of cells,
spermatogenic cells, that develop into spermatozoa, and Sertoli cells which have a supportive and
nutrient function.
Epididymis
A narrow, tightly-coiled tube that is attached to each of the testicles (the male sex glands that
produce sperm). Sperm cells (male reproductive cells) move from the testicles into the epididymis,
where they finish maturing and are stored.
Urethra
Is a common passageway of urine and semen.

GLANDS
Three glands contributes fluid to the traveling sperm cells.
a. Seminal Vesicles – a thick fluid that contains nutrients.
b. Prostate Gland – secretes a thick, milky alkaline fluid to counteract the acidic environment of
the vagina and urethra and activate the sperm cell.
c. Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper’s gland) –produce the lubricating effect.

Vas deferens
Carries sperm from testes to urethra.

PATHWAY OF SPERM

 Testosterone – Is the main male sex hormones secreted by the testes. It is responsible for the normal
development of the organs of the male reproductive system.

SECONDARY SEX HORMONES

a. Hair Growth in the face, underarm, chest, genital area, and other part of the body.

b. Enlargement of the voice box

c. Deepening of the voice

d. Development of the male musculature

e. Increased of sweat and oil.

Testosterone is responsible for males’ muscular strength.

Production of Sperm Cells

• Spermatogenesis – the process of producing sperm cells, take place in coiled tubes called seminiferous
tubules in the testes.

• This process involves multiple steps of cell division and differentiation.

Parts of the Sperm

• A mature sperm has three main parts: the tail, the middle piece or neck, and the head.

1. The tail (Flagellum) – propels as it swims in the fluid.

2. The middle piece – contains the mitochondria, which provide the sperm with energy.

3. The Head of the sperm contains enzymes that break the hyaluronic acid of the egg’s membrane. It also
houses the genetic material, which will eventually unite with the egg’s nucleus during fertilization

The Sperm Challenges in reaching the eggs

• When a man ejaculates, about 200 to 500 million sperm cell are in the semen. Only less than one percent of
these reach the egg for the following reasons:

a. Millions already die in the vagina due to its acidic environment.

b. Some sperm cells lose energy along the journey.
c. Some sperm cells go to the oviduct of fallopian tube, which does not contain the egg.
d. Some sperm cells are blocked by the mucus covering the cervix.
e. Abnormal sperms resulting from the its mass production are unable to fertilize an egg.

Female Reproductive system

Female Reproductive system performs the following functions:

a. Production of sex hormones (Estrogen, Progesterone)

b. Production of egg cells.
c. Transfer of sperms from the male sex organ
d. Protection and nourishment of the developing embryo.

Parts of Female Reproductive System

OVARIES

• The pair of ovaries, which lie on the right and left depression of the upper pelvic cavity
• Produces the mature egg cells
OVIDUCT/FALLOPIAN TUBE

• serves as passageway of eggs from the ovary to the uterus; site of egg fertilization.

UTERUS

• Is an inverted pear-shaped muscular organ where the embryo may attach to the endometrium(the inner
wall of the uterus))

CERVIX

• The neck of uterus leading to the vaginal canal.

• It dilates or opens prior to childbirth.
VAGINA

• Is a long, elastic, muscular canal where menstrual blood and tissue are expelled from the body.
• The walls of the vagina provide lubrication and receive the penis during copulation.
• This organ also expands during intercourse and childbirth.
Hymen – is a membrane that surrounds and partially covers the opening of the vagina.
Production of EGGS
Oogenesis – formation of egg cells or ova, take place in numerous round structures called follicles in the
ovaries.
 Estrogen
 responsible for control of the secondary sex characteristics and ovarian and uterine cycle.
 Responsible for female physical: features and reproduction.
 Help control the menstrual cycle and is important for childbearing.
Ovaries – main source of estrogen.

Secondary Sex characteristics

1. Development of the breast

2. Growth of axillary (underarm) hair and pubic hair.
3. Development of rounded body contours brought by a widespread layer of fat in areas such as the abdomen,
hips, and thighs
4. Widening of the hips in preparation for childbirth.
5. Development of high-pitched voice.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
• The menstrual cycle starts on the first day of the menstrual period and ends with the start of the following
period.
• It is made-up of four phases during which hormones change to prepare women for pregnancy each month.
• It is natural to experience some discomfort during the menstrual cycle while other issues might require a visit
to the doctor.
• Treating these problems depends on their causes.
• There are several methods and advice to relieve pain before and during a menstrual period.
• A menstrual cycle consists of natural changes that occur in a woman’s body every month in preparation for
pregnancy.
• Menstruation starts at puberty and ends at menopause.
• The cycle lasts an average of 28 days but may vary between 20 and40 days. The first day of a cycle is the first
day of a menstrual period and the last day is that of the following period.

First menstrual period:

• The menstrual cycle often begins at puberty between the ages of 8 and 15 (average age of 12). It usually
starts two years after breasts and pubic hair start to develop.
Phases of the menstrual cycle:
Menstruation
• Menstruation is the elimination of the internal lining of the uterine wall along with other
secretions from the body through the vagina. It usually lasts three to seven days but this
could change to days from month to month and depending on each woman.
The follicular phase
• The follicular phase starts on the first day of menstruation and ends with ovulation.
During this phase the pituitary gland (situated at the base of the brain) releases a follicle
(cyst) stimulating hormone.
• This hormone produces 10 to 20 follicles in the ovary and each follicle houses an
immature egg. These follicles produce the hormone estrogen, which in turn thickens the
lining of the endometrium in preparation to receive a fertilized egg.
• Often, only one follicle keeps growing and travels to the ovarian surface while the
remaining follicles gradually fade and are absorbed back into the body.
 Ovulation
• Ovulation occurs 12 to 16 days before the following period but not necessarily in the middle
of the cycle. The term “ovulation” indicates the formation of a mature egg by one of the
ovaries.
• The release of estrogen during the follicular phase causes the brain to produce a
gonadotrophin-releasing hormone that prompts the pituitary gland to produce raised levels
of luteinizing hormone (luteotropic hormone).
• This extracts the mature egg from the follicle (cyst) and transports it from the ovary to the
fallopian tube. If fertilization does not occur during this phase, the egg continues to the
uterus and dissolves within 6 to 24 hours.
The Luteal Stage
• During this phase, the follicle from which the mature egg burst out (now called the
yellow body of the ovary or corpus luteum) released a large quantity of progesterone
and some estrogen. The two hormones help thicken the lining of the endometrium and
maintain its thickness. If fertilization does not occur, the yellow body degrades and
progesterone levels decrease, leaving the lining unstable. The lining then falls away and a
new menstrual cycle period begins.

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS):

Some psychological and physical changes may occur during the luteal phase. These include:
Physical changes:
• Breast tenderness and swelling
• Diarrhea or constipation
• Bloating and gas
• Cramps
• Headaches or backaches
• Fluid retention
• Fatigue and vertigo
• Inability to tolerate noise or bright lights
• Acne
Psychological changes:

• Aggressive behavior and irritability

• Trouble sleeping (too much or too little)
• Changes in appetite
• Difficulty concentrating and remembering
• Stress and anxiety
 • Mood swings
• Depression or sadness
• Reduced libido

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

• SEXUAL TRANSMITTED DISEASE (STD) - STDs pass from one person to another through vaginal, oral, and anal
sex. They also can spread through intimate physical contact like heavy petting, though this is not very
common.

COMMON SEXUAL TRANSMITTED DISEASE

GONORRHEA
Description:
It is an infection of the genital tract caused by the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae. The first
gonorrhea symptoms generally appear within 2 to 10 days after exposure.
Symptoms:
 Thick, cloudy, or bloody discharge from the penis or vagina.
 Pain or burning sensation when urinating.
 Abnormal menstrual bleeding
 Painful, swollen testicles
 Anal itching
TRICHOMONIASIS
Description:
In women, the infection is most found in the lower genital tract (vulva, vagina, cervix, or urethra). In men, the
infection is most found inside the penis (urethra). During sex, the parasite usually spreads from a penis to a
vagina, or from a vagina to a penis. It can also spread from a vagina to another vagina.
Symptoms:
 Clear, white, greenish, or yellowish vaginal discharge
 Penile discharge
 Strong vaginal odor
 Painful urination

GENITAL HERPES
Description:
It is highly contagious disease caused by a type of the herpes simplex virus HSV
Symptoms:
 Small, red bumps, blister
 Open sores,
 Pain and itching around the genital are, buttocks

HIV INFECTION/AIDS
Description:
HIV is caused by a virus. It can spread through sexual contact, illicit injection drug use or sharing needles,
contact with infected blood, or from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding.
Symptoms:
 Fever
 Headache
 Swollen lymph glands
 Rash
 Chronic diarrhea
 Persistent headache
GENITAL WARTS
Description:
It is common type of STD caused by certain types of human papillomavirus.
Symptoms:
 Small, flesh-colored or gray swelling in the genital area.
 Several warts close together that take on a cauliflower shape.
 Itching or discomfort in the genital area.
 Bleeding during intercourse.

SYPHILIS
Description:
It is caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum that infects the genital area, lips mouth or anus of both
men and women.
Symptoms:
 Small painless ulcer
 Fever
 Warts in the groin
 Swollen lymph nodes
 Weight loss

Lesson 4 (A & B) – DNA AND RNA

Proteins
They are composed of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
What are the roles and functions of proteins?
• channels in membranes
control the movement of molecules in and out of the cell
• structural molecules
for example, making up hair or muscle in animals
• Hormones – to regulate the activity of cells
• Antibodies - in the immune system
• Enzymes – to act as catalysts in biological systems.
What is DNA?
 DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid.
 is the molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning of an organism.
 Most DNA is in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be
found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
 A DNA is a double helix molecule composed of complementary strands of deoxyribonucleotides units.
The complementary base pairs of the DNA are held by hydrogen bonds.
 The DNA restore the genetic materials
DNA is made of three components: namely:
a. Sugar
- Deoxyribose
b. Phosphate Group
c. Nitrogenous Group
- Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine
What is RNA?
• RNA Stands for Ribonucleic Acids.
• Ribonucleic acid (abbreviated RNA) is a nucleic acid present in all living cells that has structural similarities to
DNA.
• However, RNA is most often single-stranded.
• RNA Stands for Ribonucleic Acids.
• Ribonucleic acid (abbreviated RNA) is a nucleic acid present in all living cells that has structural similarities to
DNA.
• However, RNA is most often single-stranded.
RNA is made of three components: namely:
a. Sugar
- Ribose
b. Phosphate Group
c. Nitrogenous Group
- Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil

CENTRAL DOGMA of MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

DNA REPLICATION
• is the process by which a copy of the original genetic information is duplicated so that each new cell
has exactly the same information as the parents' cell.

Types of RNA

RNA TRANSCRIPTION
 The DNA is confined only in the nucleus of the cell. It must be copied.
 The transfer of information from DNA to a protein is called Gene Expression( Transcription and Translation).
 Transcription rewrites the genetic code in DNA into a mRNA with the Aid of a special enzymes.
 It follows the base pairing principle except Adenine in DNA pairs with a uracil in an RNA.
 When Transcription is finished, the DNA recoils to its double-helix structure.
  The mRNA will leave the nucleus. It carries the code to the ribosomes.
 The mRNA possesses the code that specifies the order in which amino acids will be synthesized and how they
will be joined to form the polypeptide.
RNA TRANSLATION
• Information in the nucleotide base sequence of mRNA is used to dictate the amino acids sequence of a
protein.
TRANSCRIPTION
 During translation, proteins are made using the information stored in the mRNA sequence. The mRNA
attaches to a structure called a ribosome that can read the genetic information.
 As the mRNA passes through the ribosome, another type of RNA called transfer RNA (tRNA) carries a protein
building block called an amino acid to the ribosome.
 The tRNA carrying the amino acid binds to a matching sequence in the mRNA. As each tRNA binds to the
mRNA strand, the amino acid it carried joins with the other amino acids to form a chain of amino acids. Once
all of the amino acids coded for in the piece of mRNA have been linked, the completed protein is released
from the ribosome.
Lesson 5 - CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION
What is MUTATION?
are changes to a DNA sequence. Just like the information in DNA as a group of sentences, mutations are
mistakes in spelling of the words that form those sentences
MUTAGENS
are agents that cause alteration in the DNA and can lead to permanent mutations in the DNA sequence
depending on the ability of an organism to repair the damage.
Examples of mutagens
radioactive substances, x-rays, ultraviolet radiation, and certain chemicals or drugs.

POINT MUTATION
– It is the type mutation in DNA or RNA wherein one single nucleotide base is deleted, added or altered.
– This can lead to substitution mutation.
– There are three types of substitution mutation. These are nonsense, missense and silent mutation.
Types of Point Mutation
NONSENSE MUTATION
– Nonsense mutation results in the formation of a stop codon due to the substitution of one
nitrogenous base.
– Remember, stop codons are special nitrogenous bases that stop the translation stage in protein
synthesis.
ATC, ATT, or ACT in DNA, and UAG, UAA, or UGA in mRNA.
– They are usually located at the end of messenger RNA nucleotide base sequence.
MISSENSE MUTATION
– occur when a single nucleotide base in a DNA sequence is swapped for another one, resulting in a
different codon and, therefore, a different amino acid.
– This will create a different amino acid in protein synthesis.
– Example:
– DNA: CAT to mRNA : GUA to tRNA CAU (Valine)
– CAT is changed into CCT to mRNA: GGA to tRNA: CCU (Glycine)
 Missense mutation can be classified into conservative and non-conservative.
Conservative mutation:
– When the new amino acid formed has the same properties of the one that was supposed to
be produced.
Non-conservative:
– When the new amino acid formed has different properties of the one that was supposed to
be produced.
SILENT MUTATION
– happens when a nitrogenous base is altered but the same amino acid is produced.
Remember, many codons can code for the same amino acid.
– Example: GGC and GGU can both code for glycine. If C is changed to a U, the same amino acid will be
produced and therefore, the amino acid will not be changed.
FRAMESHIFT MUTATION
– happens when the normal sequence of codons is disorganized by the insertion or deletion of one or more
nitrogenous bases, given that the number of nitrogenous bases added or deleted is not a multiple of three.
– lead to the abnormal protein with an improper amino acid sequence that can be either longer or shorter
than the normal protein.
– . For example,
– if just one nucleotide is deleted, then all of the codons after the mutation will have an altered
reading frame.
– three nitrogenous bases are deleted or inserted, there will be no shift in the codon reading frame
but, there will be either an extra or a missing amino acid in the protein.
Type of FRAMESHIFT MUTATION
DELETION
– happens when a base is deleted from the nitrogen base sequence.
DUPLICATION
– occurs when a part of a chromosome is copied (duplicated) too many times.
– This type of chromosomal change results in extra copies of genetic material from the duplicated
segment.
INVERSION
– when a segment of a chromosome is reversed end to end.
INSERTION
– the addition of one or more nucleotide base pairs into a DNA sequence.
What happens when a person has mutated genes?
This can lead to inherited disorders.
SICKLE CELL ANEMIA
• This type of anemia is caused by a recessive disorder through a single substitution mutation in the gene
that is responsible for hemoglobin production.
• In a normal gene, glutamic acid is formed in the chain. But when the amino acid valine
substitutes glutamic acid, this leads to the production of sickle-shaped blood cells.
• These cells cannot properly carry oxygen.
• Sickle cell anemia’s symptoms are anemia, pain crises and frequent infections.
• It can be managed with prescription drugs, folic acid, bone marrow transplants, and blood transfusions.
ALBINISM
 deletion mutation can lead to albinism.
 (specifically type I oculocutaneous albinism) is an autosomal recessive disorder in which the formation of
melanin is reduced or absent in skin, hair, and eyes due to the lack of activity of tyrosinase.
 This is caused by the deletion of the tyrosinase gene.
 CYSTIC FIBROSIS (CF)
 It is a recessive inherited disorder. Although there are many different mutations that can cause cystic
fibrosis, deletion mutation is the most common cause.
 It affects the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene that leads to the deletion
of the amino acid phenylalanine. This causes an incorrect protein.
DOWN SYNDROME
 It is related with slight retardation of cognitive ability. It is also characterized with impairment of physical
growth, body and facial features.
 Down syndrome is caused by a translocation during meiosis that transfers most of chromosome 21
(showing three chromosomes) onto chromosome 14

Lesson 5 - BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION

Evolution - Charles Darwin and The Origin of Species
▪ Defined as the change in the genetics of a population over time
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
► He was an English Naturalist
► He traveled around the world on his ship, the Beagle
► Studied species and fossils in the Galapagos Islands and around the world
► Why did some species survive while others became extinct?
► Natural selection
► Published The Origin of Species in 1859
Two types of Evolution
1. Divergent Evolution
Splitting in ancestral population into two or more sub-populations that are geographically isolated from one
another
2. Convergent Evolution
Is an increase in similarities among species derived from different ancestors as a result of similar adaptation
to similar environment.
Sources of Evidence for Evolution
1. Evidence from fossil Records
 Fossils are examples of evidences that paleontologists use in studying evolution. They are traces of
organisms that lived in the past and were reserved by natural process or catastrophic events. They can be
remains of organisms which include bones, shells, teeth and also feces embedded in rocks, peat, resin,
and ice. Paleontologist is a person who studies fossils.
 Most fossils were commonly found in sedimentary rocks. They were from the hard parts of the organism
like woody stem, bones, or teeth.
The age of fossils is determined through fossil dating. It can be specified as either relative or absolute dating.
1. Relative dating - method used to determine the age of the rocks by comparing them with the
rocks in the other layer. The younger sedimentary rock layer is assumed to be found on top and
the older rock is found at the bottom layer. Fossils found at the bottom layer are assumed to be
older than those on the upper layer.
 2. Absolute dating - is through the use of radioactive isotopes such as carbon-14. Radiometric
dating is a method used to determine the age of rocks using the decay of radioactive isotopes
present in rocks. All organisms have decaying carbon-14 in it. Plants and animals that are still
alive constantly replace the supply of carbon in their body and the amount of carbon -14 in their
body stays the same.
2. Comparative Anatomy
Homologous structure - Structures from different species which have similar internal framework,
position, and embryonic development are considered to be homologous. Homologous structures
may perform different functions in the species living in the different environment, or it may have the
same origin but different functions.
Here are some example of homologous structures:
forelimbs of dog, bird, lizard, and whale, which are structurally the same, but functionally
different.
The presence of homologous structures is a strong indicator that the organisms evolved from
common ancestors. This type of evolution is called divergent evolution.

Analogous structure - Structures of unrelated species may evolve to look alike, because thestructure
is adapted to similar function. These are called analogous structures. Analogous structures have
similar functions but different origin.
Examples
wings of birds, bats, and insects that have the same function but
different in origin.

In convergent evolution, analogous structures of unrelated organisms from different ancestors

develop similar function such as butterfly wings and bird wings.

3. Vestigial Structure
 Gradual changes have occurred through time that has, in some cases, reduced or removed the
function of somebody's organs and structure.
 The human’s appendix that is reduced and no longer digests rough vegetation (Figure 5) and pelvic
bones of snakes with reduced hind legs (Figure 6) are examples of this phenomenon. Moreover,
vestigial structures are structures that have gone their function in the organism and have become
reduced in size (because of efficiency).
Embryo
 An embryo is an early stage of development in organisms. Embryonic development include stages such as
blastula, gastrula, and organogenesis.
 The embryo of fishes, salamanders, lizards, birds, cats, and humans are similar during the first stage of their
embryonic development; and have several homologous structures that are not present when the organisms
are adults.
 Studies show that species that are closely related exhibit similar embryonic development. Even when in the
adult stage, the organisms are quite different.

Theories of Evolution - Jean Baptiste de Lamarck

1. Theory of Need - states that organisms change in response to their environment. Their ability to survive
helped them develop characteristics necessary for them to adapt in a given environment.
2. The Theory of Use and Disuse - which according to Lamarck, organs not in use will disappear while organs in
use will develop.
 3. Theory of Acquired Characteristics – states that a parent animal could pass on to its offspring the
characteristics it had acquired during its lifetime
Theories of Evolution – Charles Darwin
1. Theory of Natural Selection
According to Darwin, giraffe species originally had varying neck lengths but natural selection favored the
survival of giraffes with longer necks that could feed on taller trees that were available. Giraffes with short
neck were eliminated due to lack of accessible food supply.

Natural selection is the process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change.