Science Reviewer 3Rd Quarter

Major Division and Parts of the Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
 The main processing center for the entire nervous system

Two Main Components

a. Brain
* Organ located within the skull that functions as organizer and distributor of information for the
body

 Cerebrum
 Large, upper part of the brain that controls activity and thought

 Cerebellum
 The part under the cerebrum that cerebrum that control posture, balance, and coordination

 Brain Stem
 Part that connects the brain to the spinal cords and controls automatic function such as
breathing, digestion, heart rate, and blood pressure

b. Spinal Cord
 This serves as a channel for signals between the brain and the rest of the body and controls
simple musculoskeletal reflexes without input from the brain

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

 Connects the Central Nervous System to the organs and limbs

a. Somatic Nervous System

 Associated with the voluntary control of body movements

Two Main Parts :

 Spinal Nerves
 Nerves that carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and the body

 Cranial Nerves
 Nerves fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem

b. Autonomic Nervous System

 Associated with the involuntary control of the body movements

Two Subdivision:
 Sympathetic
 It is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress

 Parasympathetic
 It maintains body functions and restores the body to normal or relaxed body

Neurons
 Human brain consists of an estimated 100 billion neurons.
 Don’t reproduce or regenerate.
Neurogenesis
 Creation of new nerve cells.
Parts of a Neurons:
 Cell Body
- Also known as soma
- Carries genetic information, maintains the neurons structure, and provides energy to drive
information.
 Axons
- A long, tail-like structure which joins the cell body at a specialized junction called the axon hillock
 Dendrites
- Fibrous roots that branch out from the cell body.
 Purkinje Cells
- Special type of neurons found in the cerebellum.
Chemical Synapse
- In a chemical synapse action potentials affect other neurons via a gap between neurons called a
SYNAPSE.
Types of neurons:
 Sensory Neurons – Triggered by physical and chemical inputs form your environmental.
 Motor Neurons – Play a role in movement, including voluntary and involuntary movements.
Interneurons
- Are neural intermediaries found in your brain and spinal cord
- Pass signals from sensory neurons and other interneurons to motor neurons and other interneurons.
Spinal Column
 Spinal Bone is made up of 33 bones
 7 in the cervical region
 12 in the thoracic region
 5 in the lumbar region
 5 in the sacral region
 4 In the coccygeal region

The Type Of Hormones in the body

Testosterone + estrogen + Dopamine + noradrenaline + oxytocin + Vasopressin = Love
 Estrogen or Testosterune
 When lusting after someone we experience different feeling and changes in attitudes or moods

 Noradrenaline
 It is the brain chemical that causes the heart to beat fast or the palms to sweat when one sees
his or her object of affection

 Oxytocin “Cuddle Chemical”

 Begins creating an emotional bond, the more hugging, the greater the bond
 Feelings of contentment
 Reductions in anxiety and feelings of calmness and securing around our partner, gradually
leading to attachment a bond that keeps couples together

 Vasopressin
 Makes a man more responsible and make him feel the need to protect his loved ones
 Capable of causing a man to stick with one woman

Endocrine System
 Composed of gland that secrete different types of hormones that effect almost every cell
organs and function of our body
Pituitary
 Location
 At the base of the brain
 Hormones Released

 Oxytocin, vasopressin, Growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Prolactin,

Luteinizing Hormones, Follicle Stimulating hormones (FSH)
 Function
 Stimulates growth, control the function of other glands
Adrenocorticotropic Hormones
 To stimulate the production and releases of control from the cortex of the adrenal gland
Prolactin
 Causes the breasts to grow and make milk during pregnancy and after birth
Follicle Stimulating Hormone
 Helps manage the menstrual cycle and stimulates the ovaries to produce eggs

Thyroid
 Location
 Below the Voice Box
 Hormones Released
 Thyroxin, Calcitonin
 Function
 Regulates body metabolism, and causes storage of calcium in bones

Hyperthyroidism
 Occurs when your thyroid gland produces too much of the hormone thyroxine
 Can Accelerates your body’s metabolism, causing unintentional weight loss and a rapid or
irregular heartbeat

Parathyroid
 Location
 In the neck
 Hormones Released
 Parathyromone
 Function
 Controls the calcium levels in your body and normalizes bones growth

Thymus
 Location
 I front of the heart
 Hormones Releases
 Thymosin
 Function
 Enables the body to produce certain antibodies

Adrenal
 Location
 On the top of the kidney’s
 Hormones Released
 Adrenaline
 Function
 Prepares the body for actions controls, controls the heart rate and breathing in times of
emergency
Causes Of Adrenaline Spikes
1. You perceive a threat or dangers
2. Your hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system
3. Your brain instructs the adrenal glands to produce adrenaline
4. Adrenaline is released through the bloodstream

Pancreas
 Location
 Between the kidneys
 Hormones Released
 Insulin and glucagon
 Function
 Regulates blood sugar

Testes
 Location
 Lower abdomen
 Hormones Released
 Androgen, Testosterone
 Function
 Control maturation and male characteristics

Androgen
 Capable of developing and maintaining masculine characteristics
Testosterone
 Regulate Sex drive, bone mass, fat distribution, muscle mass and strength, and the production
of red blood cells and sperm
Ovaries
 Location
 Lower abdomen
 Hormones Released
 Estrogen, progesterone
 Function
 Influence female traits, and support reproductive function

Male Reproduction System

External Parts:
Penis
- Male organ used for sexual reproduction and urination
Scrotum
- Loose and pouch like sac of skin that holds the testicles/testes
Testicles
- Are oval shape organ that lie in your scrotum. Produces sperm cells and testosterone
Epididymis
- Long, coiled tube that rest on the back of testicles. Where the sperm cells mature, are carried, and
stored.
Internal parts:
Vas deferens
- Long, muscular tube. It transports mature sperm to the urethra preparation for ejaculation
Urethra
- Tube that carries sperm and urine out of the body
Seminal Vesicles
- Small pouches that attach to the vas deferens. Makes seminal fluid that nourishes and help sperm
travel.
Prostate Gland
- Walnut-sized gland located below the bladder. Adds additional fluid to the sperm cells
Bulbourethral Gland
- Located on each side of the urethra. Helps lubricate and neutralizes the acidity of urine that are left in
the urethra.

Pathway Of The Sperm

- Testicles, Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Urethra,

Stages of menstrual cycle

Menstrual Phase
- Starts and lasts for an average of 3-7
- Happens when the thickened lining of a uterus, which would support a pregnancy, is no longer needed,
so it sheds through the vagina.
Follicular Phase
- Starts from the first day of the period until Ovulation and lasts an average of 14-16 days
- Happens when the pituitary gland produces follicle-stimulating hormone, stimulates the ovary, to
produce and mature follicles.
Ovulation Phase
- Phase usually occurs around days 11 and 21 in the menstrual cycle
- Pituitary gland releases luteinizing hormone, which causes the release of the mature ovum from the
follicle.
Luteal Phase
- Lasts an average of 14 days and happens when the follicle changes into corpus luteum and releases
progesterone.
- Increase in estrogen and progesterone in order to keep the uterine lining thick in cause pregnancy
occurs
Dysmenorrhea
- Feeling of discomfort, pain, and cramps experienced around the time of the period.

Genes, DNA, and Chromosomes

DNA
- Or deoxyribonucleic is a molecule that contains hereditary biological instruction to build and maintain
an organism
- Belongs to a type of molecule called nucleic acids.
- Nucleic acids are a long chains of nucleotides
- Phosphate, Sugar, Base
- A, T (Adenine, Thymine)
- C, G (Cytosine, Guanine)
Genes
- Sequence of DNA that code for a molecule that has a function.
- Carry information that determines your traits.
Chromosomes
- Are thread-like structures made up DNA or genes.
- Genes are packaged into bundles knows as CHROMOSOME
- Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
 DNA and RNA

Protein Synthesis
- Process in which cells make proteins
Transcription
- Process that involves transcribing genetic information from DNA or RNA, that happens in the nucleus.
RNA or ribonucleic acid
- Another nucleic and also made up for nucleotides
- Can leave the nucleus as it is only a single strand and can squeeze through the nuclear membrane’s
pores
 A part of DNA is temporarily unzipped by an enzyme called RNA polymerase. This exposes the
nitrogenous bases on each DNA strands
 Only one strand is copied, and this serves as a template to assemble complementary into messengers
RNA or mRNA
mRNA
- Copies and carries the instructions from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome in the cytoplasm
Translation
- The process in which the genetic code in mRNA is read to make a protein
- Takes place on the ribosome in the cell cytoplasm
- Ribosome read the sequence of codons in mRNA.
- Each codon is read by an anticodon, the complementary sequence to the codon, which allows the tRNA
or transfer RNA to deliver the amino acid.
- Ribosome translated the code in the mRNA in order to make an amino acid chain. Protein has now
been made!

Mutations

Chromosomes
- Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, 46 in total
- Paired as one comes from the father, and the other comes from the mother.
- 22 pairs are called autosomes and the 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes
Mutations
- Changes or alteration in DNA sequence. They usually manifest on our physical characteristics.

Two Types of mutations based on causes:

A. Hereditary/Germline mutations
- Inherited from parents. They are present in almost all the cells in bodies because they inherited.
B. Acquired/Somatic
- Occurs usually because of lifestyle or environmental factors like exposure to chemical or disease.

Chromosomal Mutation
- Occurs due to errors in cell division, specifically in the crossing over part during meiosis
- Affects large portions of DNA strand and can happen in both the autosomal and sex chromosomes.
Different types of chromosomal mutation:
- Inversion – Deletion – Duplication – Insertion – Translocation
 Duplication
- Extra copy or a gene is repeated
a. Pallister Killian Syndrome – There is an extra chromosome
 Inversion
- A segment is broken off and inverted
a. Hemophilia - Genetic disorder in which the blood does not clot properly, is caused by an inversion in
the X chromosome.
 Deletion
- A segment is lost
a. Cri-du-chat syndrome – Where a part of chromosome 5p is deleted
  Insertion
- Extra pairs are inserted into a new place
a. Cystic Fibrosis – Have a faulty protein that affects the body’s cells, its tissues, and the gland that make
mucus and sweat.
 Translocation
- Part of chromosome attaches to another chromosome
a. Chronic Myeloid Leukemia – A result of translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22

Theory of Evolution by Natural selection

Charles Darwin
- English Naturalist
- Proposed in his book On the Origin of Species that organism evolve through natural selection
Natural Selection
- Process through which species adapt to their environmental
- The phrase “Survival of the fittest” best sums up natural selection
- Population that barely adapt to their environment are less likely to survive and reproduce
- Favoured traits – know how to survive and can adapt- are the one most likely to survive and reproduce
Variation
- Different individual in a population possess different characteristics
Adaption
- The ability of an organism to adjust and thrive in a given environmental