1ST WEEK

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- System that releases hormones into the blood to signal other cells to behave in certain
ways. It is a slow but widespread form of communication through CHEMICAL
COMMUNICATION (called chemical due to the use of hormones)

Hypothalamus in the Endocrine System

- Located in the brain and controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. It is an
important link between the endocrine and nervous systems.

Homeostasis
- State of internal, physical, and chemical balance in the body. The body must be in perfect
condition or stable to be in constant homeostasis.
(Endocrine system helps maintain homeostasis in the body)

The Endocrine System Contains:

1. Endocrine glands
- Releases hormones into the bloodstream.
2. Hormones
- Chemicals released by the body that travel through the bloodstream. Helps
regulate the feedback mechanism of the body.

Two Types of Feedback Mechanism

1. Positive feedback mechanism
2. Negative feedback mechanism
- Lowered, controlled in producing hormones.
(Ex. Hypothalamus produces sweat to try to reduce the temperature of the body
and shivers to try to increase the temperature of the body; Pancreas secretes
insulin to lower blood sugar.)

Although all the major hormones circulate within the bloodstream, each on has a specific TARGET
organ. Dysfunction of a gland may result in hyposecretion (too low) or hypersecretion (too
much) of the hormone.

1. Pituitary Gland
- Secretes nine hormones that directly regulate many body functions and controls
functions of other glands (master gland)
- Stimulates growth.
Disorders:
1. Gigantism - Too much growth hormones (GH) in early childhood. (Robert
Wadlow)
2. Pituitary Dwarfism - Too little GH.
Hormones of the pituitary gland:
1. Adenohypophysis (Anterior or front part):
● Growth Hormone(GH) - growth
● Thyroid Stimulating Hormone(TSH) - metabolism
● Adrenocorticotropic Hormone(ACTH) - kidneys
● Follicle-Stimulating Hormone(FSH) - stimulates the sex hormones
(estrogen and progesterone)
● Luteinizing Hormone(LH) - stimulates the sex cells (egg cells)
2. Neurohypophysis:
● Antidiuretic Hormone(ADH)
- Controls the amount of water absorbed and released by the
kidney to maintain homeostasis.
● Oxytocin
- Stimulate uterine contractions in labor and childbirth and to
stimulate contractions of breast tissue to aid in lactation
after childbirth.
2. Thyroid Gland
- Plays a major role in regulation in the body's metabolism (total activity our body
does; differs from every person).
Disorders:
1. Hyperthyroidism - Too much Thyroxine.
2. Hypothyroidism - Too little Thyroxine.

Hormones of the Thyroid Gland:

Thyroxine (T4) —> Triiodothyronine (T3)

1. Thyroxine (T4/inactive hormone)

2. Triiodothyronine (T3/active hormone; use more for metabolism)
- Regulates metabolism, increases energy production from food and rate of
protein synthesis.
Protein - building blocks of the body
3. Calcitonin
- Decreases the reabsorption of calcium and phosphate from bones to
blood.
Calcium (stored in the bones > reduces the amount of calcium in the
blood) and phosphates are needed in the bloodstream.
3. Parathyroid Gland
- There are 4 parathyroid glands that produce Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) or
Parathormone.
- Increases the reabsorption of calcium and phosphorus from bone to blood.
(Opposite of Calcitonin)

4. Pancreas
- The Insulin and Glucagon in the pancreas help to keep the level of glucose(sugar)
in the blood stable.
Insulin - lowers blood sugar; produced in the Islet of Langerhans
Glucagon - increases blood sugar; tricks the liver to convert glucagon to
glucose.
Disorders:
1. Diabetes Mellitus (All types of Diabetes)
- Fails to produce or properly use Insulin.
Type 1 - starts childbirth, autoimmune disease, Islet can’t produce
Insulin since the immune system destroys it.
Type 2 - caused by lifestyle, diets, etc.
Gestational diabetes - SOME pregnant women can’t produce
insulin.
2. Hypoglycemia - blood sugar level(glucose) lower than standard range.
3. Hyperglycemia - blood sugar level(glucose) higher than standard range.
5. Adrenal Gland
- Releases Adrenaline in the body that helps prepare for and deal with stress. Also
regulates kidney function.
Adrenaline - fight or flight situation (roller coaster, growling dog, etc.)
Hormones Produced by the Adrenal Gland:
1. Epinephrine (Adrenaline) - Increases heart rate and force of contraction, dilates
bronchial tree, increases the conversion of glycogen from the liver to glucose, and
increases the use of fat for energy.
2. Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline) - Raises blood pressure and constricts blood
vessels.
3. Aldosterone - Regulates the amount of salt in the body.
4. Cortisol - Regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fat.
5. Androgen - Maintain secondary sex characteristics.
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine - medulla
Aldosterone, Cortisol, Androgen - cortex
6. Ovaries (Gonads)
 - Pair of reproductive organs found in women that produce eggs.
- Also secrete estrogen and progesterone, which control ovulation and
menstruation.
Disorders:
1. PCOS (Polycystic Ovary Syndrome)
- Low progesterone or estrogen or higher amount of testosterone.
7. Testes (Gonads)
- Pair of reproductive glands that produces sperm. Also secrete testosterone to
give the body its masculine characteristics.
Due to the androgens females can have a tiny amount of testosterone while males can
have a tiny amount of estrogen.

The Nervous System

- This communication system controls and coordinates functions throughout the body and
responds to internal and external stimuli. (Our nervous system allows us to feel pain)
Electrical Communication - faster but disappears in an instant.

Consists of: brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs

Sense organs: eyes, skin, ears, nose, and tongue
The Nerves
- Organ containing a bundle of nerve cells called neurons. Carry electrical
messages called impulses throughout the body. For endocrine impulses —>
hormone; nerve —> blood.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
- CONTROLS internal organs

CRANIAL NERVES
SPINAL NERVES
Parts of a Neuron:
1. Cell body - contains nucleus and most of the cytoplasm
2. Dendrites - projections that bring impulses INTO the neuron to the cell
body.
3. Axon - long projection that carries impulses AWAY from cell body.
Because neurons never touch, chemical signals called neurotransmitters must
travel through the space called synapse between two neurons.
Three Types of Neurons:
Sensory Neuron —> Interneuron —> Motor Neuron
1. Sensory Neuron (AKA AFFERENT NERVES) - Carry impulses from sense organs
to the spinal cord and brain.
Largest cell —> giraffe’s sensory and motor neurons
2. Interneuron - Processes impulses in the brain and spinal cord. Connects the
sensory and motor neurons.
3. Motor Neurons - Carry impulses from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and
glands.
Communication with Neurons
Nerves work together with muscles for movement. An impulse begins when one neuron is
stimulated by another neuron or by the sense organs. The impulse travels down the axons of
sensory neurons to the brain cells called interneurons. The brain will then end an impulse
through motor neurons to the necessary muscle or organs, telling it to contract.

Reflex - is an involuntary response that is processed in the spinal cord not the brain. Reflexes
protect the body before the brain knows what is going on.

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of: Brain and Spinal Cord
Skull - To protect the brain from injury. The skull is formed from 8 bones that fuse together
along suture lines.
Brain - Consists of nerve tissues. Contains small neurons and Gila.
40% Gray matter (cell body and dendrites) and 60% White matter (axon)
Glia - Supports the connection, makes electrical communication faster, protects the nerve
cells, THEY DO NOT CREATE ELECTRICITY OR IMPULSE.
 1. Brain
1. Cerebrum - Voluntary or conscious activities of the body-learning,
judgment.
● Frontal Lobe - MOTIVATION, Personality, behavior, emotion,
judgment, planning, problem solving, speech, speaking, writing,
body movement, intelligence, concentration, and self-awareness.

● Parietal Lobe - Interprets language, words, sense of touch, pain,

temperature, interprets signals from vision, hearing, motor,
sensory, memory, spatial and visual perception.

● Occipital Lobe - Interprets vision (color, light, movement)

● Temporal Lobe - Understanding language, memory, hearing,

sequencing and organization, SHORT TERM MEMORY

2. Cerebellum - Coordinates and balances the actions of the muscles

3. Brain Stem (Medulla Oblongata) - Controls involuntary actions like blood

pressure, heart rate, breathing, and swallowing.
a. PONS - relays messages from the cortex to the cerebrum. Plays a
major role in REM sleep where dreams occur.
b. Midbrain - controls involuntary eye movement and reflexes related
to visual and audio information.

2. Spinal Cord
- Long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends
from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the
vertebral column.
7 Cervical vertebrae, 12 Thoracic vertebrae, 5 Lumbar vertebrae, Sacrum

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of: Sensory division (AFFERENT) and Motor division (EFFERENT)
- Includes all sensory neurons, motor neurons, and sense organs.
2ND WEEK

recording , practice questions

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
● Function: To perpetuate the species through sexual or germ cell fertilization
and reproduction
● No reproduction means extinction of a species

MEIOSIS
(Non-
identical;
occurs in
reproductive
46 cells; 46
gametes)
DIPLO
IDS
23 23 23 23
MITOSIS
(Identical;
occurs in non-
reproductive
cells)

46 46
MEIOSIS VS. MITOSIS

● Mitosis consists of one stage where Meiosis consists of 2 stages (Meiosis I and
Meiosis II)
● Mitosis produces diploid cells (46 chromosomes) whereas Meiosis produces
haploid cells (23 chromosomes)
● Mitosis produces 2 identical daughter cells whereas Meiosis produces 4 genetically
different daughter cells

MEIOSIS consists of:

1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase

GAMETES
- Haploid cells created by Meiosis (23 chromosomes)
- Each are unique
- Used during fertilization (23 from the mother and 23 from the father to make a
 person)
- Results are different from body cells since only 23 chromosomes

GERM CELLS
- Cells that creates gametes
- Diploid
- Only cells which can undergo meiosis and mitosis

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

EXTERNAL INTERNAL
1. Scrotum 1. Testes
2. Penis 2. Urethra
3. Epididymis
a. Glans
b. Shaft d. Head
c. Base e. Body
f. Tail

SCROTUM (Secondary organ)

- Sack that holds the testes
- Located in the Perineal area (between penis & anus)
- Protects the germ/sperm cells
- When the ball is closer to the body, it’s contracting; and when it is hanging,
it’s relaxing
EXPLANATION:
- Sensitive to temperature
- Sperm cells has to have a temp of 97 degrees Fahrenheit to
remain healthy
- So if it’s cold, the scrotum contracts closer to the body to warm
the testes and prevent the sperm from dying. When cold, it
moves away from the body to cool the testes

-Uneven size is natural

EXPLANATION:
- Due to the unequal size of the testes, the scrotum can change
size
- So if it’s cold, the scrotum contracts closer to the body to warm the testes and
prevent the sperm from dying. When cold, it moves away from the body to cool
the testes
- Contains:
a. EPIDIDYMIS
b. TESTICLES/TESTES
- CIRCUMCISION was originally done for religious purposes. Then,
PENIS
- Releases urine and semen
- Size varies whether male is aroused/hot
- To reproduce/release semen, penis has to be erect or enlarged. Blood flows towards it
to make it erect.

a. GLANS
- tip of penis
- contains urethral opening where urine & semen is secreted
b. SHAFT
- Body
- contains 3 tubular tissues namely:
a. 2 Corpus cavernosum (Copora cavernosa)
- When body is aroused, the corpora cavernosa is filled with blood
b. Corpus spongiosum
- Slight blood is present when body is aroused
- holds urethra

c. BASE
- where body is connected

URETHRA
- Tube connected to bladder and other glands
- In corpus spongiosum
- passageway for urine and semen
- urine and semen don’t go out at the same time

TESTES
- Testes (plural); Testis (Singular)
- In Scrotum; oval-shaped
- Inside the Testes, there are 250 lobules (sections/compartments) which contains:
a. Seminiferous Tubules
- Site of spermatogenesis
- Home of Sertoli Cells
- Sertoli Cells - nurtures spermatids

EPIDIDYMIS
- Behind testis
- Contains:
A. Head
- where sperm will be received
- After spermatids are matured in sertoli cells, they go to the head of the
epididymis
B. Body
C. Tail

PROCESS OF MATURING SPERMS

SPERMATIDS --> SERTOLI --> GETS NURTURED --> HEAD OF EPIDIDYMIS -->
MATURED
ANATOMY OF SPERM

3 MAJOR PARTS:
1. Head
- contains:
a. DNA in nucleus (most important)
b. Acrosome
- holds digestive enzymes capable of tearing down the egg cell’s walls and
penetrate the egg
2. Middle piece/Midpiece
- Contains mitochondria to provide the needed energy for the sperms to swim
faster than other sperms
3. Tail
- Flagellum
- Hair-like structure
- Moves like a motor

SPERM either contains an X or Y chromosome, so if it carries:

- X - girl
- Y - male

Alot of sperms are abnormal (i.e 1 head with 2 tails, 2 heads with one tail, etc.) and they die
before they reach the egg cell due to:
- Being burned by female reproductive system or;
- Trapped in hair like structures in female reproductive system

The only abnormality that cannot be detected physically but can reach the egg cell if it
involves DNA

VAS DEFERENS/Ductus deferens

- Sperm duct
- Tube that connects epididymis to seminal vesicle

SECRETORY CELLS/GLANDS

Sperm then goes to Secretory cells/glands, which secretes different fluids.

a. Seminal Vesicle
- produces sugar-rich fluid to fuel the mitochondria in sperm
b. Prostate Gland
- produces an alkaline fluid to neutralize acid found in Female Reproductive System
c. Bulbourethral gland/cowper’s gland
- produces an alkaline fluid to neutralize the acidity from urethra/urine

Semen - sperm + fluid from secretory glands

*PROCESS OF EJACULATION
TESTES PRODUCES SPERM → EPIDIDYMIS → VAS DEFERENS → SEMINAL VESICLE →
EJACULATORY DUCT (constricts course to fasten movement of sperm) --> PROSTATE
GLAND → URETHRA → EXPULSION
VIDEO ABOUT EJACULATION

NEARLY 300 MILLION SPERM go through the:

1. TESTES
2. VAS DEFERENS
3. PROSTRATE (closes up the bladder)
4. CONSTRICTS/CONTRACTS (closing the opening between bladder and urethra)
5. URETHRA
6. SEMEN

- Seminal vesicle forms a thick alkaline fluid to protect sperm from the acidic
environment of the vagina
- Gel is liquified by enzymes from prostate gland
- Also contains sugars to nourish sperms
- Seminal plasma is left in vagina

*VIDEO ABOUT SPERMATOGENESIS

- Sperm develops in Seminiferous Tubules in Testes
- Primordial sperm cells called spermatogonia lie dormant in the outer compartment of
tubules from fetal period-puberty

Spermatogonia → Mitotic division → Genetically identical cells

→ Primary spermatocytes → Each primary spermatocytes undergo first Meiotic division
→ forms Haploid Cells/Secondary Spermatocytes
→ 4 Haploid cells/Spermatids (With exactly ½ of Father’s DNA)
→ Spermatogenesis
→ Mature sperm cells
→ Spermatids nucleus condenses
→Acrosome appears and Tail forms, Cytoplasm sheds
→ As spermatogenesis completes, the sperm cells break free from the sertoli cell lining in the tubules
into the lumen
→ Stored in epididymis where they functionally mature

2 MAIN HORMONES INVOLVED IN GAMETE PRODUCTION

1. FSH (Follicle-stimulating Hormone)
- Tells ovaries to grow follicles which creates estrogen to the uterus
IN MALES:
- Acts directly on sertoli cells
- Simulate growth of sperm
- Develops gametes

2. LH (Leutinizing Hormone)
IN MALES:
- They go to Leydig Cells to produce and develop testosterone
- ^ Testosterone ^ LH
Testosterone is needed to:
- Develops secondary sex characteristics in males
- Produce sperm
- High amounts lead to high sexual drive and acne

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

EXTERNAL INTERNAL
1. Vulva 1. Fallopian tube
a. Labia majora 2. Ovaries
b. Labia minora 3. Uterus
c. clitoris 4. Cervix
5. Vagina
UTERUS
- Where baby develops
- Womb
- Lower abdomen
- Elastic and expands when baby is present; can change shape
- If UTERUS is not facing the bodym it can cause pregnancy problems
- Sheds extra tissues (Endometrium) in case of pregnancy
- During labor, the uterus helps push the baby by contracting. Oxytocin stimulates the
uterus to contract to push the baby out. Baby has a time limit.

FALLOPIAN TUBE
- Egg receiving area
- Connected to uterus
- Close to ovaries
- Fimbriae - lounging area of the egg cell; Ends of fallopian tube
- 4-6 inches long
- If egg is fertilized or not, it will still reach the uterus
- 3-6 days → egg → fallopian tube

VAGINA
- Birth canal
- Passageway for baby, blood and mucosal tissue
- Extends from the cervix to the outside of the body. It’s a 3 ½ inch long muscular tube
that expands in length and width during sexual arousal
- Some females have a small tissue covering the vaginal HYMEN. When hymen is
teared during sexual intercourse, the vagina bleeds

● Menstruation
● Labor
● Reproduction/Entrance of semen

CERVIX
- Canal between vagina and uterus
- Doctors will measure the size of cervix prior labor
- Ready for labor when it reaches 10 cm
- Acidic in nature to kill bacteria

● Found at the end of the uterus

● Opens/widens during ovulation and menstruation
● Important to know when woman starts to labor

VULVA (Main organ)

- Near anus (to clean – from front to back/ vulva to anus)
- Mons pubis
- pubic hair
- Prevents diseases causing pathogens to easily go inside the vagina. Also
helps control the temperature
- Consists of:
1. Labia Majora
2. Labia Minora
3. Vestibule - contains 2 vaginal orifices (opening) known as the urethral
opening (urethral orifice) and vaginal opening (vaginal orifice)
Bartholin Glands - release fluid to lubricate the opening of the vagina
during sexual excitement or when females are aroused and
temperature control.
CLITORIS
- Many nerves
- Sensitive (aroused easily)
- To clean – front and back

PERINEUM
- Space between anus and reproductive system
- A muscular sheet that is easily torn during childbirth
- Many labor = more easier to push out (not necessary to cut the perineum)

BREASTS
- Produces milk
1. Nipple - tip
2. Areola - surrounding skin of the nipple (size depends from person to
person)

If not the same size/symmetrical, (same with the scrotum basta ana)

- Fluid that comes out – milk, blood, and immune cells that give the mother’s antibodies
to the baby

- Some women can’t lactate since not enough milk is produced

- Too much milk produced can inflict pain to females (pumping is used to remove
excess milk)
VIDEO ABOUT PCOS
Polycystic ovary syndrome is a constellation of symptoms rather than a disease; the cause
or causes are not entirely understood.

● In a normal menstrual cycle, the brain makes the hormone GnRH which travels in the
blood to the pituitary gland.

● The pituitary gland then releases two hormones: FSH(Follicle-Stimulating Hormone)

and LH (luteinizing hormone), which travels in the bloodstream to the ovary.

● These hormones cause about 6-12 follicles to be awake and start to mature. as they
are going to mature, they release estrogen hormone and cause the lining of the uterus
to begin to build up.

● Then one of those 6-12 follicles tends to grow a little faster and becomes dominant.
Then this dominant follicle moves to the edge of the ovary to produce an egg.

● Other follicles disintegrate in the next few days.

● After the egg is released, the follicle then seals over and is called the corpus luteum.

● The corpus luteum starts producing progesterone.

● This progesterone has a negative feedback effect on GnRH to reduce it and keep its
frequency in a normal range. This egg then travels to the uterus. If fertilized, it stays in
the uterus, but if not fertilized, it will disintegrate after about 24 hours, and the
woman will have a regular menstrual period.

● One of the primary abnormalities in PCOS is the abnormal release of GnRH.

Instead of being released in a regular cyclic manner, for an unknown reason,it
is released at a higher pulse frequency.

● This increased pulse frequency leads to an increase in Lh over FSH.

● This lower FSH causes the follicle not maturing enough to become functional and
can’t ovulate.

● If the follicle does not ovulate, a corpus luteum is not created. Without a corpus
luteum, there is no surge in progesterone.

● The lack of progesterone leads to a higher pulse frequency seen in PCOS.

● The follicles that don't ovulate are cysts—that form on the ovary with PCOS.

● Multiple cysts on the ovary represent past failed follicular ovulation events and are
characteristic of PCOS.
● Also, excessive LH levels stimulate thecal cells to produce higher amounts of male
sex hormones, androgens, or testosterone. Which leads to other PCOS symptoms
like hirsutism, acne, menstrual irregularity due to hormone imbalances, and infertility
because there is no ovulation.

● Insulin also plays a vital role in PCOS. It is released from the pancreas.

● Insulin can affect the thecal cells of the ovary and cause even more androgen
release.

● The high amounts of androgen cause decreased sensitivity to insulin and cause
insulin resistance.
● With insulin resistance, more insulin is released from the pancreas and causes even
more androgens.
● This can lead to a condition called pre-diabetes or even diabetes.
● Having A healthy lifestyle, weight loss, getting plenty of exercises and good sleep
● also discontinuing smoking are the foundations of PCOS treatment.
● There are also medical treatments available for polycystic ovary symptoms.
● Birth control pills cause regular periods and will also help lower testosterone levels.
● A medication called metformin helps lower insulin levels and improve insulin
sensitivity. Sproule lactone is available to help with excess hair growth. Medications
 are known to lead to normal pregnancy and should be given by a specialist under
close supervision.

OVARIES
- 2 ovaries
- Contains follicles that potentially become egg cells

1 ovary has around 200,000 follicles

2 ovaries have 400,000 follicles
Only 300-500 follicles will become egg cells and can only be produced one at a time,
randomly

Ovulation
- Process of releasing an egg

Ovum
- Egg cell

VIDEO ABOUT OVULATION AND PERIOD

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
- Until 51 yrs old
- Hypothalamus and pituitary gland create hormones that stimulate production of female
sex hormones and control the menstrual cycle
- Lasts for 3-8 days

PHASE I
- 14 days
- First day of bleeding
- FSH is released → causes one fluid-filled follicle containing a mature egg to develop →
produces estrogen → peaks at day 12 → endometrium thickens → prepares body to get
pregnant

During day 14,

High amounts of LH and FSH causes the egg to be released from the follicle
→ ^ LH ^ Testosterone ^Sex drive = most fertile time of cycle
→ goes to fallopian tube
→ tiny hairs (‘cilia’) push it down to the uterus

If sperm cell meets an egg cell in fallopian tube, fertilization takes place there

→ egg cell is released, follicle seals over “corpus luteum”

→ LOW FSH and LH
→ corpus luteum produces progesterone

If fertilization has occurred, the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone which
prevents endometrium from being shed.

If fertilization has NOT occurred, the egg and the corpus luteum will disintegrate after 24
hours which will lower progesterone and the endometrium will shed in 14 days.

Period blood consists of tissue and blood.

Causes:
- Cramps
- Lower back pain
- Sore breasts
- Irritability
- Mood swings
FSH and LH stimulate follicles, but only ONE follicle develops into that follicle that releases an
egg.

During the time the follicles are being stimulated, follicles are secreting ESTROGEN which
acts on the uterus and thickens it.

Eggs will not be released until the ovaries have ESTROGEN.

Estrogen → sends electrical signals to hypothalamus → produces GnRH → signals pituitary gland →
LH → Ruptured Follicle (follicle where egg is released) also releases testosterone, high sex drive →
corpus luteum → progesterone

Ruptured Follicle turns into → corpus luteum → progesterone → endometrial lining thickens and
makes breasts form

and goes to hypothalamus → negative feedback on GnRH

● Women don't usually have surges in hormones.

● If egg cells are not used, menstruation will occur.
● Egg is produced one at a time.
● Days of mens get shorter as you grow older.
● Mens depends on age and body which vary depending on hormonal changes

Dysmenorrhoea
- caused by prostaglandins made in lining of uterus
- Causes muscles and blood vessels of uterus to contract and to shed endometrium
Menarche
- First mens bleeding
- End of mens depend on the absence of egg cell
GnRH
- Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
PHASES OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Range for menstrual cycle: 35 days

I. FOLLICULAR (BEFORE RELEASE OF THE EGG)

- Normally lasts for 14 days
- Older women has shorter follicular phase
- Shedding the uterus lining called Menstruation
II. OVULATORY /OVULATION (DURING THE RELEASE OF THE EGG)
- 16-32 hours
- High LH and FSH → causes follicles to be stimulated
- Actual release of the egg cell
III. LUTEAL (AFTER RELEASE OF THE EGG)
- 14 days
- Sore breasts due to progesterone
- Corpus luteum produces progesterone and causes endometrium to thicken and
shed, dilating the lobes of the mammary glands of the female

Egg cell lifetime in the female reproductive tract is 12-24 hours. If the female didn’t have sex
during 14/15 days or the female has sex 2-3 days before ovulation period – she can still get
pregnant since sperms can last 3-5 days inside the female reproductive tract. After 12-24
days, the egg cell will die or regenerate.

Another effect of the LH, other than allowing the follicle to rupture and release the egg and
releasing testosterone–turning it into the corpus luteum. The ruptured follicle will have the LH,
go back to the inside of the ovaries. Remember, the follicle removed it from the edge to
release the egg cell. It will slowly go back in time, closes, and transforms into the corpus
luteum due to the presence of high LH.

Progesterone lowers, endometrium sheds. Simultaneously, the Egg cell is already transferred
from the fallopian tube (where the egg cell will stay for the majority of its life, waiting for the
sperm cell) to the fimbriae (where it contains ‘cilia’ which beat the egg cell rapidly) to the
uterus.

FERTILIZATION/CONCEPTION
- When an egg is fertilized and unites with the sperm

- Corona radiata (outer layer) – sperm can pass through it easily

- Zona pellucida – sperm cells need to penetrate using acrosomes.
- Cytoplasm – first sperm to touch will become the sperm to fertilize the egg cell

CONCEPTION/FERTILIZATION
- When an egg & sperm unites and share DNA
- Happens in the Fallopian tube, more specifically the Ampullary Isthmic Junction
- If egg is NOT fertilized, it will go back to the uterus to regenerate.
- If egg is fertilized (aka Zygote), it will go back to the uterus. Around 5-6 days, it will reach
the fallopian tube. Egg is constantly dividing as it goes to fallopian tube → Blastocyst →
 will be the one to reach the uterus

Some parts of the Blastocyst becomes:

- OUTSIDE CELLS:
- Placenta – provides the blastocyst nutrients
- Amniotic sac – surrounds the baby; the sac is filled with amniotic fluids
or urine from the fetus.
- Umbilical cord
- INSIDE CELLS - other parts for baby

As the Blastocyst goes to the uterus, it breaks free from its shell and buries itself in the tissues
of the uterus (endometrium) which contains oxygen and nutrients.

FIRST TRIMESTER
- First three months
- Most crucial trimester – where the baby develops
- Pregnant women are more prone to miscarriage and sensitive.
Within 3 weeks, the Embryo and vital organs (heart,brain, etc.) are formed.

After 9-12 weeks, Fetus & Rest of organs are formed.

At 12 weeks, All body systems are working and completely formed. – Baby can already feel
pain

CEPHALIC POSITION
- Upside down
- Near the cervix or birth canal
- Allows the smoothest delivery

BREECH POSITION
- The feet goes outside first
- Most challenging delivery

- To tolerate pain during labor, body needs positive feedback ug opium

SIGNS NGA MU GAWAS IMONG ANAK NGA WA NA LAGLAG

1. Cervix is 10 cm dilated
2. Amniotic sac (water) will rupture
3. Contraction

- Blue baby – umbilical cord wrapped tightly around the baby’s neck (choking
haha deserve)

CESAREAN DELIVERY
- Is the surgical procedure by which one or more babies are delivered through an
incision in the mother's abdomen, often performed because vaginal delivery would put
the baby or mother at risk.
- Can either be:
- Horizontal - Mothers prefer a horizontal cut since it can be hidden easily.
- Vertical
 - Can be done under anesthesia.

WHICH COMES OUT FIRST

- Baby → umbilical cord → placenta
Stem cells
- Cells that can develop to any specialized cells.
- Found in the placenta. – why most hospital asks for your placenta after labor to
put it in banks
TYPES OF ABORTION (THE BABY CAN ALREADY FEEL PAIN)
1. Vacuum suction method
- Like a vacuum cleaner cleaning up dirt, the baby comes out in little pieces.
2. The cutting up method
- The doctor slices the baby into pieces inside the mother.
3. The surgical method
- The doctor takes the baby out by surgical opening in the abdomen.
4. The salt method
- A salt solution is injected into the amniotic sac. – its burns the baby

THIRD WEEK
CELL REPLICATION

* DNA & RNA DISCUSSION (1).m4a – MARCH 15,2023

DNA
● Deoxyribonucleic acid
● Made up of repeating molecules called nucleotides
○ PARTS OF A NUCLEOTIDE (SPN):
■ Sugar
● Depends on what type of nucleic acid
● For DNA, deoxyribose is the sugar
■ Phosphate group
● Phosphorus and Oxygen
■ Nitrogenous Base
● There are 4 types of Nitrogenous Base in the DNA
○ Adenosine
○ Guanine
○ Cytosine
○ Thiamine
● Genetic material inside each cell
● Blueprint of life (contains the instructions of all the things our body needs to make)
● In a Thread-like form called chromatins
○ The threads will condense into chromosomes before cellular division. This is done so
it is easier for both cells to have equal portions of DNA.
○ Scattered in the nucleus prior condensing into chromosomes

CHROMOSOMES
● Related to DNA since Chromosomes contains DNA
● Condensed strands of DNA
● Naay diagram pls check
GENES
● Contains chromosomes/portions of the DNA
● Code for a specific trait (i.e hair, color of eyes)
● Is a nucleic acid, which is one of the 4 macromolecules
● Active proteins
● portion of DNA
● Codes of proteins

Nucleotides ← Nucleic acid (e.g., DNA, RNA)

Genes ← segments of the DNA which codes for a specific trait; made of Nucleic acid
Chromosomes → made of Genes; and other genetic elements

HISTORY
1. FREDERICK GRIFFIN
a. Discovered that a factor in diseased bacteria can transform harmless bacteria into
deadly bacteria
b. There’s something in the bacteria that could change the bacteria from harmless → deadly
c. Has mutated or has evolved (DNA is changing)
d. Dangerous bacteria is mutated
2. ROSALIND FRANKLIN
a. First person who had an x-ray of DNA
3. WATSON & CRICK
a. Created the model of the structure of the DNA
b. Used the x-ray photo of Rosaline Franklin
c. Gave the world an idea of how DNA looks like
d. Based on their model, they proposed that DNA has 4 nitrogenous bases and should be
paired

PAIRING OF NITROGENOUS BASES

Adenine → Thiamine
Cytosine → Guanine

STRUCTURE OF DNA
- Double-helix → like a twisted ladder, has two strands
If it is compared to that of a ladder:
- Legs → phosphate group & sugar (backbone of the DNA)
- Rungs/steps → Nitrogenous bases that are paired
Nagpakita si maam ug image/diagram of the DNA

Observations:
- Opposite formations of sugar-phosphate backbones
- Similar structures of Pyrimidines
- Chemical bonds that connects nitrogenous base are different
- Bonds that connect G - C composed of 3 hydrogen bonds
- Bonds that connect A - T are connected by 2 hydrogen bonds
- Sugar-phosphate backbone is from 5” to 3” (in other words: the starting point of DNA starts with
the 5th carbon connected with the 3rd carbon si phosphate. Fifth carbon followed by Third
carbon. Opposite would mean that the Third carbon goes first followed by fifth carbon, hence 3”
to 5”.)
- WHY IT’S HELIX STRUCTURE: because of the 5” to 3” direction

Watson & Crick now proposed that both sides of DNA are following according to the
COMPLEMENTARY RULE. Meaning, each side complements the other. In order to complement the
other side, that’s why the directions are opposing. A purine must always be paired with a pyrimidine. If it
is paired incorrectly, the rest of the structure will become deformed. TAKE NOTE: They did not specify
which pairs with which.

2 TYPES OF NITROGENOUS BASE

Cytosine / Thymine → Pyrimidines
Adenine / Guanine → Purines
How to differentiate them? Purines have a bigger structure than Pyrimidines.

CHARGAFF’S RULE
An Adenine must be paired with a Thymine, and a Cytosine must be paired with a Guanine.

PROBLEM SOLVING:

1. Let's say in 100% DNA, there are 22% Adenine. How much Guanine do you think is present in
the DNA?

Solution:
22% Adenine 22% Thymine (since paired man)

28% Guanine 28% Cytosine

100% DNA - 44% (Total of Adenine & Thymine) = 56% / 2 (since equal man ang pairs) = 28%

Therefore, there is 28% of Guanine present in the DNA.

2. Let’s say in 100% DNA, 60% is actually purines. How much Thiamine is there?

Solution:

60% purines and 40% pyrimidines

- There is no correct answer. Since 60% the purines, therefore, the

3. Let's say the Adenine and Guanines (Purines) are 50%. What is the percentage of the
Thymine?
Solution:

Adenine 25% Thymine 25%

Guanine 25% Cytosine 25%

- A,C,T,G doesn't have to have equal amounts. It differs according to the protein it's trying to
make.
- Diversity is due to the arrangement of nucleotides

DNA is composed of nucleotides connected to each other. This entire structure slowly wraps around in
a protein called HISTONES when it does mitosis/meiosis. So it can turn into chromosomes. Histones
are the ones that make it possible for the thread-like structure of DNA to turn it into chromosomes.

When it comes to the nucleic acid found in our cells, DNA is not alone. There is another called RNA
found in our cells.

RNA
- Ribonucleic acid
- Sugar: Ribose sugar
- Has a single strand
- Different nitrogenous bases:
- Cytosine / Uracil → Pyrimidines
- Adenine / Guanine → Purines
- DNA:holds information::RNA::Protein-synthesis

Central Dogma of Life (DNA Replication & Protein Synthesis)

**Processes of Central Dogma.m4a – March 16, 2023
**DNA Replication-Protein Synthesis.m4a – March 16,2023
Why does a cell need to replicate?
● Cell has to replicate DNA so that the new cells will have blue prints and function properly
● Must be replicated BEFORE cell division
● The goal of this process is to make more DNA

DNA REPLICATION
● Semiconservative model/process
○ Watson and Crick
○ Parent strand is split into two and each strand functions as a template
○ Contains 1 old & 1 new strand
○ The dna will be split into two and a new DNA and an old DNA– which is why it’s called
semiconservative
○ It will be created by the original parent strand where 1 will be the parent strand and the
1 will be the daughter strand

WHERE?
For eukaryotes, it happens in the nucleus
For prokaryotes, it happens in the cytoplasm
○ Both Prokaryotic and eukaryotic have DNA replications
WHEN?
Before mitosis or meiosis. Specifically, INTERPHASE
● Dna ultimate director for cells in cell division

KEY PLAYERS
● Enzymes
○ Ends in ‘-ase’
○ Has the ability to speed reactions or break reactions
● Helicase
○ The unzipping enzyme
○ Unzips the dna strands (breaks the hydrogen bonds)
○ Supercoiling is possible

● Primase
○ The initializer which makes the primes know where to go
○ Made of RNA
○ Create a primer to initial the start of the dna replication will happen

● Ligase
○ Loose the nitrogenous base together

● DNA Polymerase
○ The one who builds the nitrogenous base

PROCESS
Starts at the ORIGIN
1. Helicase unzips/unwinds the DNA ( as the Helicase divides the DNA, supercoiling is
possible–meaning the rest of the strand will coil and stick back to each other)
2. SSB protein (Single stranded binding proteins) binds to the DNA strands to keep them
separated and prevent it to return to Double-Helix
3. Topoisomerase (gyrase) stops them from supercoiling
4. PRIMASE → makes an RNA primers on both strands (specifically, it attaches to the 3”
end of the DNA) and is like a “checkpoint” for DNA polymerase to know where to start
5. DNA Polymerase replicates the complementary strand of the DNA. It builds the new
strand in ONLY the 5’ to 3’ direction, meaning it will add new bases on the 3” end on
the new strand. This causes the OkaZaki fragments/lagging strand to form. RNA
Primers are continuously being put on the lagging strand for the DNA Polymerase to
use. These primers will be replaced with DNA.
6. LIGASE takes care of the gaps between the fragments & seals them together.
7. At the end of replicating, you have 2 identical double-helix DNA molecules from your
one original DNA double-helix molecules.
8. POLYMERASE have proofreading ability to prevent incorrect DNA (properly match up
the nitrogenous bases)
a. Incorrect protein/no protein if not matched up properly - can cause cancer or
mutations
DIRECTION OF DNA
Remember: both strands COMPLEMENT each other and are non-identical. Strands are antiparallel
because they go in different directions. This is the reason why the DNA twists. The sugar - carbons are
numbered after the oxygen.
 The strand on the left runs from 5” to 3”. While the strand on the right runs from 3” to 5”.

HOW DNA POLYMERASE DOES IT

The new strand built by the DNA polymerase below is also known as the
the lagging strand. On it, RNA primers have to keep being placed for
DNA polymerase to build. These fragments are known as “OkaZaki Fragments”

Remember, the DNA polymerase starts at the 3” end (refer to the picture on the left). For the old,
original strand below, it can’t produce the same strand continuously unlike the leading strand so it
creates fragments.

On the lagging strand/OkaZaki Fragments, these primers have to be replaced with DNA bases/strands
since it’s made of RNA.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS (RNA replication)

● Synthesis - to make
● DNA has the genetic information that codes for the color of the eyes by coding for proteins that
help make a pigment inside the eyes
● DNA contains genetic information that codes for various traits, such as eye color.
● Proteins are important molecules that are involved in many cellular functions, including
transport, structure, and enzyme activity.
● Protein synthesis is the process of making protein from DNA, and RNA plays a significant role
in it.
● Once the RNA Polymerase is created, the DNA strand will go back to its double-helix structure

Gene expression involves two main steps:

1. TRANSCRIPTION
○ Occurs in the nucleus
○ Involves the use of an enzyme called RNA polymerase to connect complementary
RNA bases to the DNA, creating a single-stranded mRNA (messenger RNA) molecule.
■ mRNA contains a message made of RNA that has been based on DNA
○ The RNA polymerase copies the information of the DNA. DNA is a very big molecule
so ONLY the RNA polymerase can only copy the information and bring it outside the
nucleus.
○ mRNA undergoes significant editing before it goes out of the nucleus and attaches to a
ribosome to build proteins in the next step.
○ In the cytoplasm, the mRNA attaches to a ribosome (which creates proteins).
Ribosomes are made of rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)
 2. TRANSLATION
● In the cytoplasm, many tRNA (transfer RNA) are available which carries an amino acid
on them. These tRNA brings together amino acids to make proteins
○ Amino acids are monomers/building blocks for proteins.
● To know what amino acids to bring, mRNA directs which tRNA’s come in to the
ribosome and which amino acids are transferred
● All tRNA’s is trying to find their complementary bases. So when it finds the
complementary bases found on the mRNA, they will transfer the amino acids.
● When tRNA is bringing their amino acids, it reads the bases by CODONS (by threes)
represented on the letters on the mRNA (i.e AUG)

So for example, in this mRNA, the tRNA would read

the codon AUG. One of the tRNAs contains a
complementary anticodon–in this case, UAC.

For every anticodon the tRNA’s carry, it will also

carry its corresponding amino acid. In this case, it’s
Methionine. You can see in the second pic that this
amino acid will be transferred since the tRNA will
eventually leave but leaves behind its amino acid.

● These amino acids are held together by a peptide bond.

● Typically, at the very end of the mRNA, there is a stop codon. Instead of an amino
acid, it indicates that the protein-synthesis is finished.
● Results of Translation: chain of amino acids that were brought in by certain sequences
based by the mRNA
● DNA is the ultimate director of protein-building

GENE EXPRESSION/PROTEIN-SYNTHESIS
**Mutation.m4a

Recap
Goal of Transcription is to copy the information from the DNA and put it in an RNA.
Where? For eukaryotic cells, it happens in the nucleus. For prokaryotic cells, it happens in the
cytoplasm.
When? During interphase.

STAGES

Gene Expression
I. TRANSCRIPTION
● For eukaryotic cells, transcription occurs in the nucleus.
● DNA and Gene is used as a template to make mRNA strand with the use of RNA
Polymerase
● Happens per gene
● RNA Polymerase is the key player
PHASES
● Initiation - Promoter (Start of a gene) region of the gene functions as the recognition site for
RNA Polymerase to bind. This is where the majority of the gene expression is controlled since
it only chooses certain nucleotides that go into the open DNA. Binding causes the DNA double-
helix to unwind. This creates mRNA.

● Elongation - RNA polymerase slides along the template DNA strand and chooses
complementary nucleotides to the DNA strand in a 5” to 3” direction. As the complementary
bases pair up, RNA Polymerase links nucleotides to the 3” end of the growing RNA molecule.

● Termination - Once the RNA polymerase reaches the terminator (End part of a gene) part of
the gene, the transcription process is complete. The RNA polymerase, DNA strand and mRNA
transcript dissociate from each other.

The strand of mRNA made after the process has regions called:
I. EXONS - codes for proteins
II. INTRONS - non-coding regions

So the mRNA can be used in translation, it goes through INTRON SPLICING. This is where introns
have to be removed and a 5” cap & a 3” poly-A tail is added (it protects the ends of the mRNA). It joins
the neighboring exons to produce a mature mRNA strand that leaves through the nucleus through a
nuclear pore and enters the cytoplasm to begin Translation in the ribosome and attach to the rRNA.

This is performed by a complex made by protein and RNA called a spliceosome.

II. TRANSLATION
CODONS - Nitrogenous bases grouped in 3
64 codons
Start - AUG
Stop - UGA, UAG UAA

I. INITIATION - mRNA binds with the ribosomal subunit upstream of the start codon. Initiator
tRNA brings anticodon and its corresponding amino acid based on the anticodon sequence.
After the initiator tRNA binds to the start codon, the large ribosomal subunit starts to form the
translation complex. Initiation is complete when the large and small ribosomal subunits + tRNA
is attached to the mRNA.

II. ELONGATION - Individual amino acids are brought into the mRNA strand by the tRNA
molecule through complementary base pairings of Anticodons and Codons. Each Anticodon
corresponds to an amino acid.

In the large ribosomal subunit, there are 3 distinct regions: E, P and A sites. (In order)

Where is the initiator tRNA found? SITE P

tRNA comes on what site? SITE A

A charged tRNA molecule binds to the A site. A peptide bond forms between its amino acid and the one
attached to the tRNA at the P site. After the ribosomal subunit slides one codon down to the right, the
now uncharged tRNA will exit at the E site. A site is ready to accept a new tRNA molecule until a stop
codon is reached.

III. TERMINATION - when the ribosomal subunit reaches the stop codon, a release factor binds
to the A site. Polypeptide (long chain of amino acids) is released through the P site. Entire thing
dissociates then can be reassembled to begin the process again. Still needs re-editing prior
function and takes place in different organelles.

PURPOSE
To accurately and quickly make polypeptides.

CODON CHART
**DNA pt 2.m4a
 DNA → mRNA → tRNA → Amino Acids

MUTATION
**MUTATION PT 2.m4a

Somatic cells
- any cells other than gametes
- Body cells
- While mutation in gametes pass them on thru lineage, mutations in somatic cells only the
individuals will have a problem

Are mutations harmful or helpful?

- Both. Mutations can help a species evolve completely fit to their environment, but it has to be
multiple mutations. Mutations can result to illnesses, like leukemia & skin cancer, but it usu.
happens to somatic cells.

Mutations affect the proteins since it’s in the DNA.

Proteins have different purposes. There are diff. kinds: enzymes,
structural & functional proteins → other bodies main activities

Common reason of Mutations is due to the chemicals we are exposed to & food we eat, UV rays, etc. It
would cause our cells to have errors in copying DNA. Some viruses hijack the DNA to change the
nucleotide sequence.

MUTATION - only ONE organism

POPULATION - many organisms

There are 2 types of Mutations:

1. Gene Mutation
- In the gene itself
- Change in nucleotides. Can involve a single/double, but usually single
- Mainly due to chemicals, viruses, etc.
TYPES
 1. Point Mutation
a. Deletion
b. Insertion or Substitution
c. Inversion - 2 nucleotides exchange during replication

For example, the original DNA is ACTTGA. Let’s say during replication, it turns to TGAACT. This is the
copied DNA. In POINT MUTATION, one of the nucleotides will be either removed or
inserted/exchanged with the wrong nucleotide.

- Results in a NO protein or WRONG protein

SICKLE CELL ANEMIA

- Red blood cell’s shape is a crescent moon
- Due to the shape induced by the Sickle Cell Anemia, the blood cell/circulatory system will not
properly distribute oxygen and nutrients

2. Frameshift
- The frame of the gene changes causes everything to be incorrect. It would either be deletion or
insertion.

2. Chromosomal Mutation
- In the Chromosome
- Happens mostly in gametes
- During meiosis, in Prophase I (Crossing Over). This is where the chromosomes mix up
with each other to exchange genes. There are times where the erroneous ang
placement sa gi break off/naay mo break off then mawala/inig break off, they are
placed in the wrong chromosomes. Metaphase where chromosomes align; Anaphase
where chromosomes separate.
 a. Deletion - one part of the chromosome is erased off in the process; lacking part of the
chromosome; no longer transferred to the offspring
b. Inversion - removed from the chromosome but instead of being properly placed in the correct
sequence, it’s flipped over
c. Translocation - two chromosomes are involved and they will have exchanged parts
d. Nondisjunction - During anaphase; homologous chromosomes do not separate. Remember
for each cell, it needs equal (4) pairs of chromosomes. This will result in one cell having 6 and
the other having 2. There are too many and too few chromosomes in each of the cells.
e. Duplication - a part of the chromosome has been copied and has been placed in one
chromosome; too much input

ANIMATION OF MUTATIONS

TYPES OF POINT-MUTATION
**MUTATION PT 3.m4a

2 TYPES OF POINT-MUTATION - This has something to do with the type of nitrogenous base ends up
pairing with the original template
1. Transition
- Same types of nitrogenous bases are paired with each other (Purines→Purines/A→G or
A/C→T)
2. Transversion
- Different types will be paired with the wrong pair/order
(C→A)

RESULT OF POINT MUTATION IN GENE REPLICATION

- Ends up in 3 results seen in Translation:
1. Nonsense - Position: Front, Result: Stops the process any time because it ends up
making it into a stop codon
2. Silent - Position: End, Result: same amino acid
3. Missense - Position: Middle, Result: entirely different amino acid
a. Conservative
b. Non-conservative
PRESENTATIONS

DISORDERS
- Can be inherited, chromosome, randomized, no cure

1. CRI DU CHAT:
a. Characteristics: high-pitched cat-like cry, intellectual disability, small head size, facial
abnormalities
b. Causes: deletion of a portion of chromosome 5
c. Symptoms: developmental delays, intellectual disability, speech and language delays,
motor skills delays
d. Lifestyle/treatment: speech and occupational therapy, special education programs,
early intervention

2. Down's Syndrome:
a. Characteristics: intellectual disability, distinctive facial features, poor muscle tone,
congenital heart defects, stunted growth
b. Causes: extra copy of chromosome 21
c. Symptoms: developmental delays, intellectual disability, increased risk of certain
health problems such as heart defects, hearing loss, and vision problems
d. Lifestyle/treatment: early intervention, special education programs, physical and
occupational therapy, regular medical check-ups

3. Edwards Syndrome:
a. Characteristics: intellectual disability, small head size, small jaw, clenched fists with
overlapping fingers, heart and kidney problems
b. Causes: extra copy of chromosome 18 nondisjunction or translocationv
c. Symptoms: developmental delays, intellectual disability, increased risk of certain
health problems such as heart defects, kidney problems, and respiratory infections
d. Lifestyle/treatment: supportive care, physical therapy, regular medical check-ups

4. Klinefelter's Syndrome:
a. Characteristics: infertility, reduced muscle mass, enlarged breasts, sparse facial and
body hair
b. Causes: extra copy of the X chromosome
c. Symptoms: infertility, reduced testosterone production, increased risk of certain health
problems such as breast cancer and osteoporosis
d. Lifestyle/treatment: testosterone replacement therapy, fertility treatments, regular
medical check-ups

5. Angelman Syndrome:
a. Characteristics: developmental delays, intellectual disability, seizures, hyperactivity,
speech and language delays, happy demeanor
b. Causes: deletion of a portion of chromosome 15
c. Symptoms: developmental delays, intellectual disability, increased risk of seizures,
sleep disorders, and scoliosis
d. Lifestyle/treatment: speech and occupational therapy, special education programs,
anti-seizure medication, early intervention

6. Huntington's Disease:
a. Characteristics: involuntary movements, cognitive decline, behavioral changes,
difficulty with speech and swallowing
b. Causes: Inherited. Happens on Chromosome 4. In which repetition or too much of the
CAG has been inserted.
c. Symptoms: progressive loss of cognitive and motor function, psychiatric symptoms
such as depression and anxiety
d. Lifestyle/treatment: medication to manage symptoms, physical and occupational
therapy, genetic counseling

7. Albinism:
a. Characteristics: lack of pigmentation in the skin, hair, and eyes, vision problems
b. Causes: genetic mutations that affect the production of melanin
 c. Symptoms: increased sensitivity to sunlight, vision problems such as nearsightedness
or strabismus
d. Lifestyle/treatment: protective clothing and sunscreen to reduce sun exposure,
corrective lenses for vision problems

8. Cystic Fibrosis:
a. Characteristics: chronic lung infections, digestive problems, salty-tasting skin
b. Causes: inherited mutation in the CFTR gene; mutation in Chromosome 7; deletion
mutation
c. Symptoms: chronic lung disease, pancreatic insufficiency, increased risk of infections
d. Lifestyle/treatment: antibiotics to manage lung infections, pancreatic enzyme
supplements to aid digestion, chest physiotherapy to clear mucus from the lungs.
Regenerate response

EVOLUTION

**evolution
** evolution pt 2
** evolution pt 3
** Charles darwin

–
EVOLUTION
● Descendants of apes/primates
● Natural Selection

HISTORY OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT

EARLY IDEAS OF EARTH’S ORGANISMS

Aristotle
- Everything in this planet is the same from the start arranged by their complexity
- Fixed creations
- Idea lasted for 2000 years
- No one dared to question him since it was like questioning the church → ostracized

Carolus Linnaeus
- Used latin names to group similar organisms and assign them
- Why latin? Because latin is a dead language, it wouldn’t change
- Binomial nomenclature
- Using 2 names to where the organism is classified

CHARLES DARWIN
- Finalized the evolution theory

1. CHARLES LYELL
- Uniformitarianism (changing Earth)
- `Gradual/Slowly changing
- Planet itself

2. GEORGES CUVIER
- Catastrophism
- Catastrophes shaped our planet

3. THOMAS MALTHUS
- Malthusian theory of Population (>population <resource)

4. James Hutton
- Gradualism
- Uniformitarianism but it applies to the organism

5. JOHN/JEAN BAPTISTE LAMARCK

- Inheritance of acquired characteristics (TRAITS CAN BE PASSED ON TO THE NEXT
GENERATION i.e mice with no tail → chopped tail → offspring had no tail)
- Law of use and disuse (if useless it will not exist)
WORKSHEET
- Organisms evolved constantly from inanimate→ animate→ humans. TLDR; inherited characteristics
 6. GEORGES LOUIS LECLERC
- Species change, migrate & move to a new location → explains distribution

CHARLES DARWIN
- Feb 12, 1809
- Crew of HMS Beagle, 1931
- 5 yr voyage around the world haaha
- Collector of flora and fauna

SOUTH AMERICA
- Galapagos islands
- Volcanic islands
- Diff climates

DARWINS OBSERVATIONS
- Patterns of biodiversity
- Unique adaptations in organisms
- Not evenly distributed species
-
BOTH LIVING ORGANISMS & FOSSILS WERE COLLECTED
I.e trilobites, giant ground sloth of SA

Evolution is slow, gradual change in a population over time

Common Descent w/ Modification

- Originally descended from common ancestors

Natural Selection
- Driving force for evolution
- Only Top alpha best of the best chupapa reproduce

ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY MEANS OF NATURAL SELECTION OR THE PRESENTATION

OF PRESERVATION OF FAVOURED RACES IN THE STRUGGLE FOR LIFE
- Published 1856 (25 yrs later due to Darwin in fear of being ostracized)

WHY DID HE DECIDE TO PUBLISH

- ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE
- Wrote an essay w/ similar ideas
- 1/18/1823
- Naturalist
- Independently developed same theory
- Darwin credited past theories that help him understand in his book

ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES: CONCEPTS AND CONTROVERSIES

- Evolution by Natural Selection Concepts
1. Struggle for existence
2. Survival of the Fittest –>OR ← NATURAL SELECTION
- TAKES TIME and changes are seen in generations
FITNESS - ability of an individual to survive and reproduce where offspring and
mother survives
3. Survive and Reproduce

- ADAPTATION - inherited characteristic that increases an organism's chance for survival

1. PHYSICAL
- Speed
- Camouflage
- Muscle strength
- respiration/sweat
- Exoskeletons
- Long necks
2. BEHAVIORAL
- Grp hunting/solo levelling/herds
- fight/flight response
- Migration
- Ambush
- Leaving baby alone to make it survive
- Hibernation
- nocturnal/daytime hunting

DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION

- We All have common ancestors
Natural selection can be observed as changes in body structures, ecological niches, habitats
Niche - role in ecosystem

DARWIN CANNOT EXPLAIN

- How traits are passed on (DNA of animals)
- No mechanism to explain natural selection GREGOR MENDELL
- Planted green peas to observe hereditary

EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

- Fossils
- Anatomy
- Embryology
- Biogeography
- Molecular biology

THREE TYPES OF ANATOMICAL STRUCTURES

- Homologous structures - common anatomy - bone pattern of limbs in humans, cats, whales
and bats
- Analogous structures - different anatomy but similar function - bat and butterfly wings
- Vestigial structures - parts useful to ancestors but irrelevant to modern - appendix

^ ang gi focus sa above kay STRUCTURES, i balewala ang FUNCTIONS

THREE TYPES OF ANATOMICAL FUNCTIONS

- Homologous functions - the same functions
- Analogous functions - different functions
- Vestigial functions - functions useful to ancestors but irrelevant to modern - appendix

Extra
khan academy

FERTILIZATION

Seminal plasma left in the vagina

Sperm use their tails to swim thru cervical mucus that guards the entrance to uterus

During ovulation, this barrier gets thinner changing its acidity creating a friendly environment
for the sperm.

After 14 days, Egg arrives at the ampullar isthmic junction, it rests for another 30 hours,
fertilization occurs in this portion of the tube.

Once sperm enters the uterus, contractions propel the sperm upward into the fallopian tubes
to meet the waiting egg.
Sperm must travel from the vagina to the fallopian tubes, a tough journey that few sperm
survive.

This process allows only the healthiest sperm to fertilize the egg to have the best chances of
creating a healthy baby. First sperm are not likely the ones that'll fertilize the egg. Mobile
sperm can survive in the Female Reproductive Tract for up to 5 days.

The Fallopian tube pushes the egg towards the uterus.

Cilia pushes the sperm towards the egg also the surrounding cells of egg produce chemicals
that attract sperm.

The sperm first burrows to cells of corona radiata, upon contact with zona pellucida, it binds to
the receptors of zona pellucida.

Enzyme field cap called acrosome releases its stored digestive enzymes.
Finally, sperm must fuse with egg plasma membrane, this event causes the egg membrane to
change and prevents other sperm from attaching to it.

Now attached, the sperms nucleus where chromosomes are stored, enters the egg cell
looking for the eggs nucleus.

Egg combines genetic material with sperm to create a full set of chromosomal dna with 23
pairs of chromosomes that contain a unique copy of the gene of the parent source. This is the
blueprint for a whole person that determines characteristics.

The combined sperm and egg is called a zygote – earliest development stage. It travels from
the fallopian tube to the uterus

. After fertilization, zygote continues to divide and morph into a blastocyst ball of 16 cells
approximately 5-6 days after fertilization, smaller than the tip of a ballpoint pen.

Only 20% - 30% of eggs will reach the blastocyst stage. Will have high implantation potential
once transferred to the uterus. Blastocyst hatches out of its shell and burrows into the
endometrium which serves as a source of oxygen and nutrients. About 4 weeks from the
beginning of last period, blastocyst produces pregnancy hormones to tell ovaries to stop
releasing eggs, and the Menstrual cycle stops

. Blastocyst is called an embryo now. Week 5, the circulatory system, brain, and spinal cord
are beginning to form, tiny heart starts to beat.

Placenta provides oxygen and nutrients to the baby and removes wastes via umbilical cord.

Nose, mouth, ears start to shape at week 6. Weeks 7-8 embryo doubles in size, little hands
and feet starts to grow. Week 9-12, embryo is called fetus, baby is almost fully formed,
completed most critical forms, the facial features are more recognizable fetus; head is bent
and rotated towards the chest and he can occasionally touch his face .

Diaphragm muscles start to grow , reproductive, circulatory, and urinary systems are all at an
advanced stage of development. Urinate in an amniotic sac, sign that the fetus' body functions
properly . Girl - ovary contains millions of eggs. Boy- testicles will already start producing
testosterone. 5-6 cm in size, 14 grams weight. She or he is growing and maturing til ready to
birth.

□ Follicular Phase (before release of the egg)- begins on the 1st day of bleeding and lasts for
about 14 days.
→ The pituitary gland releases FSH. This hormone causes one fluid-filled follicles contain a mature
egg to develop.
- The maturing follicle produces estrogen which increases over and peaks in about Day 12
and causes the lining of the uterus to become thicker and more enriched with blood vessels.
- The woman’s body prepares to get pregnant.

□ Ovulatory Phase (egg release)

→ On day 14, the high amount of LH and FSH causes the egg to be released from the follicle. The high
levels of LH also causes a brief surge in testosterone, which increases sex drive, right at the most fertile
time of the cycle.
→ After release, the egg enters the fallopian tube. If the sperm cell can successfully meet an egg cell in
the tube, the fertilization will take place here.

□ Luteal Phase (after egg release)

→ Once egg is released, the follicle seals over and this is called the corpus luteum. Levels of FSH and
LH decrease.
→ The corpus luteum produces progesterone. If fertilization has occurred, it continues the production
which prevents the endometrial lining from being shed. If egg is not fertilized, it will disintegrate after
about 24 hours, including the corpus luteum. This causes progesterone levels to drop and then signals
the endometrial lining to begin shedding after about 14 days.
→ The menstrual blood is partly blood and partly tissue from inside the uterus. The period comes again
every 24-38 days from the first day