HORMONAL COMMUNICATION IN HUMANS

The endocrine system consists of glands which manufacture chemical messengers called hormones.
These chemicals carry information from one part of the body to another part. They are made in the
endocrine glands.

A gland is a group of cells which produces and releases one or more substances, a process known as
secretion.

Endocrine glands contain secretory cells which pass their secretions directly into the blood.

{endocrine – secreting to the inside}

However, there are other glands known as the exocrine glands which secrete their substances, NOT
hormones, into a tube or duct along which this secretion flows. eg. salivary glands secrete saliva into
salivary glands in to mouth.

{exocrine – secreting to the outside}

N.B : the pancreas acts as both an endocrine and exocrine gland

Hormones:

Mammalian hormones have many features in common:

relatively small molecules

may be polypeptides or steroids
effect of hormones are fast acting
short lived and broken down by enzymes – lasts for a few minutes and can be turned “off”
quickly
low levels are secreted – has a large effect on body

Hormones are transported all through the body in the blood. Each hormone has a particular group of
cells which it affects called target cells. These cells and only these cells are affected by the hormone
because they contain receptors specific to the hormone.
 Chemistry of hormones
Steroid hormones Amine/polypeptide hormones
Produced by the endocrine glands of Produced by the endocrine glands of
mesodermal origin ecto/endodermal origin
Actions of many are concerned with long Brings about a response in a few minutes
term responses of the body and actions are relatively of short
duration. Immediate release.
Oestrogen, testosterone, aldosterone ADH, TSH, insulin
.

These two groups have different, distinctive mechanisms of action within the target cells.
HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY GLAND: -

 Levels of hormones are monitored here.

 Also controls indirectly many important functions such as body temperature,
hunger, thirst and sleep
 Secretes 2 groups of hormones that control the activity of the anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland. One of the groups of the hypothalamic hormones stimulates and
the other depresses the releases of other hormones that is produced and stored
in the anterior pituitary gland.
 All hormones produced in the anterior pituitary gland regulates other endocrine
glands.
TSH ( thyroid stimulating hormone) controls the secretion of hormones in
the thyroid gland
ACTH ( adrenocortictrophic hormone) regulates the secretion of
hormones in the adrenal cortex.
FSH ( follicle-stimulating hormone) stimulates spermatogenesis in the
testis and growth of the follicles in the ovaries.
LH ( leutenizing hormone) affects hormones in the ovaries and testes.

Somatotrophin is a growth hormone also secreted by the anterior

pituitary gland that regulates the production of growth hormones by the
liver.

 The posterior pituitary gland stores two hormones produced by the

hypothalamus in its neurosecretory centre – ADH and oxytocin.

THE THYROID GLAND

 Lies in the neck overlying the trachea and near the larynx.
 Secretes 2 throxine hormones, which it manufactures from the amino acid
tyrosine, with the addition of iodine ( thyoxine hormones affect all body
cells). They cause an increase in the rate of tissue metabolism ( basal
metabolic rate) and also in the rate of glucose metabolism.

Control of secretion of thyroxines :

o Secretion of thyroxine in the thyroid gland by a hormone from the pituitary
gland TSH and indirectly by a hormone from the hypothalamus  TRF
( thyrotophic- releasing factor).
 o The levels of thyroxine in the blood controls the further secretion of both
hormones by negative feedback control :
Excess thyroxine inhibits the secretion of TRF from the hypothalamus and TSH from
the pituitary gland.
Hypothalamus

TRF
Inhibits TRF
release
Anterior pituitary gland

TSH

Inhibits TSH
release
Thyroid gland

Thyroxine in the blood

Calcitonin – hormone secreted by thyroid gland where calcium ions levels are too high in
the blood  decrease in calcium ions in the blood

Disorders of the thyroid gland:

 Hyperthyroidism – overactivity of the thyroid gland. Symptoms are restlessness, irritability,
loss of body mass, swollen thyroid  goitre. Cause by negative feedback or a thyroid
tumour. Can surgically remove the thyroid gland.
 Hypothyroidism – underactivity of the thyroid gland. Symptoms include being less alert,
increase body mass. In children,  cretinism (mental retardation). Can take thyroid tablets.
Adrenal glands :
Found immediately above the kidneys. Each has 2 parts – an outer adrenal cortex and an inner
adrenal medulla. Medulla is stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system but the cortex is
stimulated by hormones from the pituitary glands (these glands change in size  get larger during
stress !)

The adrenal cortex :

produces a number of steroid hormones known collectively as corticoids (produced by
cholesterol). They are thus lipid soluble and can pass through cell membranes.
They activate specific genes in the nucleus
Slow-acting and long lasting
There are two groups –
1. Glucocorticoid ( cortisols) – deals with glucose metabolism and are produced in periods
of anxiety, fear or disease. They affect carbohydrate and protein metabolism. Glucose
and glycogen are enhanced at the expense of fats and proteins
2. Mineralocorticoids – helps in water retention by control of inorganic ion distribution
e.g. aldosterone which increases the reabsorption of sodium and chloride ions by the
kidney tubule.

The adrenal medulla :

consists of neurosecretory cells, capillaries and nerves.
Produces two hormones – adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Produces the ‘fight’ or ‘flight ‘ response :
~ glycogen in the liver turns to glucose thus increasing the blood sugar levels
and sustaining muscular contractions
~ bronchioles dilate, smooth muscle of gut relaxes and the diaphragm lowered
 More air inhaled and more oxygen available.
~ amplitude / stroke volume and heart rate and blood pressure increases which
increases delivery of blood to tissues.
~ vasoconstriction of blood vessels to the gut and reproductive organs…
increases blood supply to voluntary muscles.
~ decrease in sensory threshold; increased mental awareness; dilation of pupil
 Increases sensitivity and more rapid response due to increases range of
vision.
~ hair erector muscles contract ( especially in furry animals).
The pancreas:
 Have patches of pancreatic cells known as islets of Langerhans which consist of two types of
cells : 1. Alpha cells – produces the hormone glucagon and
2. Beta cells – produces the hormone insulin.

Both hormones regulate the blood sugar levels. But their effects are antagonistic!
 Insulin is released in response to a rise in blood sugar levels. Its effect is to lower blood
glucose levels. Failure to produce insulin causes diabetes… glucose appears in the body since
the kidneys are unable to reabsorb the excess glucose… can be controlled by insulin
injections and a regulated diet.
 Glucagon is secreted in response to a fall in blood glucose levels. It stimulates the liver to
convert glycogen to glucose and enhances the mobilisation of fatty acids from the adipose
tissues.
 PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
Plants also have communication systems that allow coordination between different parts of
their bodies. Although some plants have electrical signals that makes the plant respond eg.
The senstitive plant, most plants communicate via chemicals. These are known as plant
hormones or plant growth regulators.
These hormones are :
 Not produced in endocrine glands but in a variety of tissues
 Are usually produced in such small quantities.
 They move in the plant either directly from cell to cell ( by diffusion or active
transport) or carried in the phloem sap or xylem vessels. Some may not move at all
from their site of synthesis.
 Because they are usually found in very low concentrations, it is difficult to determine
precisely what some of them do.
 Some even have different effects when they are present in relatively low
concentration than when they are in relatively high concentration.
 They can have different effects in different tissues, in different species or in different
stages of a plant`s development.
 Also, two or more plant growth regulators acting together can have very different
effects from either of them acting alone.

Auxins
 Main auxin known as IAA ( indole-3-acetic acid)
 Synthesised in the growing tips of roots and shoots where the cells are dividing. From
here it is transported back down the shoot or up the root by active transport from cell
to cell may also be in phloem sap)
 Auxins determines whether a plant grows upwards or branches sideways… when a
plant has an active growing point at its apex, this tends to stop buds on the side of the
stem lateral buds. Thus the plant grows upwards rather than branching out
sideways!
However, if the bud at the tip of the main shoot – the apical bud- is cut off, then the
lateral
buds start to grow. This is because the presence of the apical bud is stopping the
lateral buds
from growing apical dominance
 Auxins are synthesised in the apical buds and are transported down the stem to the
lateral buds.

It is not certain what causes apical dominance but one theory suggests that auxin that is
present In the lateral buds is in a particular concentration that inhibits their growth. Removal
of the apical buds causes the concentration of the auxin in the lateral buds drop and so the
lateral buds can now grow.

Gibberellins
These are plant growth regulators that are synthesised in most parts of the plants. They are present
in especially high concentrations in young leaves and in seeds and are also found in stems where
they have an important role in determining their growth.
1.Stem elongation:
The height of plants is partly controlled by their genes e.g. tallness in peas is affected by 2 alleles – if
the dominant allele is present the plant grows tall but plants homozygous for the recessive allele
always remain short.
The dominant allele of this gene regulates the synthesis of an enzyme that catalyses the synthesis of
an active form of gibberellin  GA₁
If only the recessive allele is present, then the plant contains only inactive forms of gibberellin.
Active gibberellin stimulates cell division and cell elongation in the stem causing the plant to grow
tall.

Applying active gibberellins to plants that would normally grow short such as cabbage can stimulate
them to grow tall.

2.Seed germination :
When seeds are shed from the parent plant they are in a state of dormancy – they contain little
water and is metabolically inactive.
The seed contains an embryo which will grow to form the new plant when the seed germinates.
The embryo is surrounded by endosperm tissue which is a food source containing the polysaccharide
starch.
On the outer edge of the endosperm is a protein-rich aleurone layer. The whole seed is covered by
a tough, waterproof , protective layer.
When the seed absorbs water, this stimulates the production of gibberellin by the embryo and the
gibberellin in turn stimulates the synthesis of amylase by the cells in the aleurone layer. The amylase
hydrolyses the starch molecules in the endosperm, converting them to soluble maltose molecules.
These are then converted to glucose and are transported to the embryo providing a source of
carbohydrate that can be respired to provide energy as the embryo begins to grow.
Gibberellins causes these effects by regulating genes that are involved in the synthesis of amylase.
Eg. Application of gibberellins causes an increase in the transcription of m RNA coding for amylase.

ABSCISIC ACID
1.Stomatal closure :
 Also known as ABA, has been found in a variety of plants including moss and ferns and even
flowering plants.
 Synthesised in almost all cells that have chloroplasts or amylopasts ( have large starch grains
but no chloroplasts)
 Can be termed ‘stress hormone’ – if a plant is subjected to difficult environmental conditions
such as high temperatures or low water supplies then it responds by secreting ABA.
 in the drought, ABA concentrations in leaves can rise 40 times normal; this
causes leaves to close thus reducing water vapour loss from leaf.
NB ! recall how guard cells control the opening and closing of the stomata

 it is not known exactly how ABA achieves the closure of the stomata but the response is very
fast… if ABA is applied to a leaf the stomata closes within a few minutes.
 It seems that the guard cells have ABA receptors on their plasma membranes and it is
possible that when ABA binds with these it inhibits the proton pump, so potassium ions and
water would not enter and the guard cells would become flaccid and close the stomata.
2.Leaf Abscission:
 Abscission means leaf or fruit fall.
 Some trees drop their leaves at certain times of the year…these fall when the leaf stalk or
petiole breaks off from the stem. First, useful substances are withdrawn from the leaves and
taken back into the stem; this involves the breakdown of some of the pigments in the leaves,
changing their green colour to yellow, golds and red. An abscission zone forms where the
petiole meets the stem, made up of two layers of cells. Nearest to the leaf is the separation
layer which is made up of small cells with quite thin cell walls. Nearest to the stem is the
protective layer made up of cells whose walls contain suberin (waxy waterproof substance).
Enzymes then break down the cell walls in the separation layer and the petiole breaks at this
point. The protective layer remains forming a scar on the stem where the leaf used to be.
 It is not known exactly what controls leaf abscission , but it has now been seen that abscisic
acid has little to do with it but more with senescence( leaf aging). Abscission is usually
accompanied by a drop in auxin concentration in the leaf… abscission can be prevented by
applying auxin in the early stage of the process….eg. auxin sprayed onto citrus trees
prevents the fruits from falling.
 Confusingly though, high concentrations of auxins applied later on can actually promote fruit
drop !!!

CYTOKININS
o In mature plants they are produced in the root tips and travel to the shoots in transpiration
stream.
o Promotes cell division
o Do NOT influence the growth in lengths of stems but are involved in breaking dormancy in
bud and seeds; and also in the release of lateral buds from the dominance by the apical
buds.
o Added to mature leaves, they delay the onset of senescence.

ETHENE
 Fruits produce ethane as they ripen..,. unripe fruits such as bananas, apples and citrus ripen
more quickly if exposed to ethane ( speeding up of ripening is important in horticulture)
 Has an inhibitory effect on stem growth especially during physiological stress.
 Contributes to breaking of bud dormancy
 Promotes leaf aging/senescence
INTERACTION OF THE REGULATORS
GA and IAA work together in stem elongation  synergism
Cytokinins are antagonistic to maintenance of apical dominance of
the terminal bud IAA

COMPARISON OF PLANT AND ANIMAL HORMONES

Plant
Growth regulators produced in
restricted areas of plants but made
in specialized cells
Not always transported widely and
some are formed at the site where
that are active
Lacks specificity and influences
different tissues and organs
sometimes in contrasting ways
Animal
Produced in specific organs/glands in
specialized cells/ tissues
Transported to all parts of the body in
the blood but their effect is restricted
to target organs/ tissues
Effects are specific to particular
tissues/ organs in the body and do not
influence other parts of the body.