Endocrine System

 Endocrine glands are referred as the organ of endocrine system. Endocrine system constituted by
endocrine glands which are situated in different part of body. These glands secrete chemical
substance which called hormones or first messengers or chemical messenger.CAMP (Cyclic
adenosine monophosphate) is most common second messenger inside the cell. Other second
messenger is calcium ion (Ca).Body contains two kinds of glands such as endocrine or ductless
gland and exocrine gland. Equilibrium of the internal environment of body is maintained partly
by the ANS & partly by endocrine glands. Hormones are chemical substance that release in one
part of body but regulate activities of cells in other parts body. Body contains two kinds of glands
such as endocrine or ductless gland and exocrine gland. Equilibrium of the internal environment
of body is maintained partly by the ANS & partly by endocrine glands

Endocrine Glands /Organs & its Hormones

I Pituitary gland
(a) Anterior pituitary gland1.
1. Growth hormone (GH)
2. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
 3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
4. Prolactin hormones (PRL)
5. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
6. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
7. Melanocyte stimulating hormone.ninssteiteh

(b) Posterior pituitary Thyroid gland

1. Anti diuretic hormone (ADH)
2. Oxytocin hormone
II Thyroid gland1.
1. T3 (Triiodothyronine)
2. T4 (Tetraiiodothyronine) or thyroxinen
3. Calcitonin

III Para-thyroid gland

1, Parathyroid hormone (PTH) or Parathorrmone
IV Pancreas
1. Insulin
2. GlucagonHormone
3. Somatostatin
4. Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP)
V Testes
1.Testosterone
VI Ovaries
1. Estrogen
2. Progesterone
VII Pineal gland
1.Melatonin

VIII Thymus gland

1. Thymosin
2. Thymin

IX Kidney
1. Rennin
2. Erythropoietin (secreted by renal tubular cells)
3. 1, 25, dihydroxy-cholecalciferol or activated vita. D or Kidney hormone
X Heart
1. Atrial Natriuretic peptide (ANP)
XI Placenta
1. Human chorionic Gonodotrophin (HCG)
2. Human Chorionic Somatomammotrophin (HCS) or Humam .Placental Lactogen (HPL)
3. Estrogen Inhibiting
4. Progesterone
XII Adrenal gland
(a) Adrenal cortex
1. Mineralocorticoids
2.Glucocorticoids
3. Sex hormone (androgen)

(b) Adrenal medulla

1.Adrenaline or epinephrine
2. Nor adrenaline or nor epinephrine
3. Dopamine
Note – Many organ or tissue contain cells which secrete hormone but they are exclusively not
classified as endocrine gland e.g. hypothalamus, ovaries, kidney, stomach, small intestine, heart
and spleen etc

Classification of hormone –
Depending upon their chemical nature hormones classified into 3 types-
Steroid Hormone – Hormone derived from cholesterol or its derivative called steroid hormone,
Examples are corticosteroid and sex hormone.
Protein Hormone – Hormone secreted by pituitary gland, parathyroid gland, pancreas etc.
Derivatives of amino acids tyrosine – These hormones are derived from amino acid tyrosine,
examples are thyroid hormone & adrenal medullary hormone.
Negative feedback mechanism
The regulation of secretion of hormones, controlled by negative feedback mechanism in our body.
 Hypothalamus (detector) Secrete releasing hormone (Ex. CRH, TRH) Pituitary gland
(controller) Secrete stimulating hormone (Ex.TSH, ACTH) Target gland (effector)
Increased level of target gland hormone (Ex. T3, T4, Glucocoticoids) Utilization of hormone
Decreased level of target gland hormone.
In our body except labor process, milk ejection, milk secretion & blood coagulation process all the
Mechanism.
Hypothalamus
Many years the pituitary gland was called the master endocrine gland but we now know that
pituitary gland itself Has a master, the hypothalamus. Hypothalamus is an important regulating
center in the nervous system and also a crucial endocrine gland, so it Provide major link between
nervous and endocrine system. Hypothalamus secreted following releasing and inhibiting
hormone to control anterior pituitary gland-
1. GHRH (Growth Hormone Releasing Homone)
2. GHIH (Growth Honone Inhibiting Hornone) /Somatostatin
3. CRH (CorticotropinRelensing Hormone)
4. TRH (Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone)
5. GnRH (Gonadotropin Releasing Hornone)
6. PH (Prolaetin Inhibiting Homone) or Dopamine
These hornones called neurohornone.
Pituitary gland
Pituitary gland also known as hypophysis (undergrowth).It lies in hypophyseal fossa of sphenoid
bone below the hypothalamus.It attach to hypothalamus by a stalk called infundibulum.
Size – Pea shaped. Diameter – 1 to l.5 cm.weight-1 to 4 gm
It has two anatomically or functionally separate lobes.Between two portion is pars intermedia.
A. Anterior Pituitary (Anterior love) or adenohypophysis
Sometime it also known as the master gland.It composed 75 % of total weight of
gland.Adenohypophysis secrete 7 hormone which secretion stimulated by releasing homone and
suppress by inhibiting hormones of the hypothalamus

1. Growth Hormone (GH) or somatotropin (most plentiful )

It secreted by somatotropescells.GH stimulates secretion of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) from
several tissues that stimulate body growth.IGF have a wide variety of functions, including the
stimulation of cell growth and proliferation (eg. in theDeveloping embryo and neonate), DNA
synthesis, bone growth and the replication of cancer cells.So GH along with IFG is responsible
for the growth of almost all tissue of body by increasing the size andNumber of cells by mitotic
division. Its release is stimulated by GHRH and inhibited by GHIH (somatostatin) from
hypothalamus in response to blood glucose level.GH increase blood glucose level
(hyperglycemia) which called pituitary diabetes. Deficiency of growth hormone in children cause
stunted growth leading to dwarfism. Excessive secretion of GH in children cause enormous
growth of the body called gigantism.Hypersecretion of GH after stopping growth of bone in
length called acromegaly (Marie’s disease).Acromegaly is characterized by enlargement,
thickening & broadening of bones eg. Gorilla face, prognathism (protrusion of lower jaw) &
bulldog scalp. Hypo secretion in adult cause acromicria (atrophy of the extremities of the body).
2.Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
TSH stimulate growth & activities of the thyroid gland.It also stimulates synthesiS and secretion
of thyroid hormone. Secreted by thyrotropes cells of pituitary gland.It release is stimulated by t
hyrotropin – releasing hormone (TRH) secreted by hypothalamus
3.Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) or corticotrophin hormone
It secreted by corticotropescells.Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) from the Hypothalamus
promote the synthesis and release of ACTH.ACTH control the production and secretion of
hormone of adrenal cortex (cortisol).ACTH also increase the concentration of cholesterol within
the gland
4.Prolactin (PRL)
It secretes by lactotropescells.This hormone stimulate milk secretion (milk production by
mammary gland). Sucking of breast by baby stimulate prolactin secretion and suppressed by PlH
or dopamine. Function of prolactin in male is not known but its hypersecretion cause erection
dysfunction or impotence.In female hypersecretion cause galactorrhea (excessive milk
production) & amenorrhea
5. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Both FSH and LH secreted by gonadotropes cells of pituitary.Action of FSH in male – Sperm
production (spermeogenesis). Action of FSH in female – Responsible for development of
Graafian follicle. It is also stimulate theca cells ofGraafian follicle to secrete estrogen.
6 Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Action in male- This hormone in male also known as interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH)
because it Stimulate interstitial cell or leydig’s cell in testes and secrete testosterone. Action in
female- responsible for ovulation, formation of corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone.
Note -FSH and LH together called gonadotropic hormone.
7. Melanocyte stimulating hornmone (MSH)
It increase skin pigmentation by stimulating the dispersion of melanin granules in
melanocytes.Simmond disease or pituitary cachexia or panhypopituitarism.Hyposecretion of the
entire anterior pituitary hormone due to atrophy, which cause senile decay.
B. Posterior Pituitary or Neurohypophysis
The hormones released by neurohypophysis are ADH and oxytocin. These hormones are
synthesized by the cells of hypothalamus and transport through nerve
fibers(hypothalamohypophyseal tract) to posterior pituitary and where they are store.
1.Anti -Diuretic Hormone (ADH) or vasopressin.ADH mainly secreted by supraoptic nucleus
of hypothalamus. The major function of ADH is retention of water in the extra cellular fluid of
body by action on kidney(decrease urine production). In absence of ADH, urine production
increase up to 20 lit/day due to impermeability of DCT & collecting Duct to water.ADH increases
the permeability to water of distal convoluted tubules and collecting tubules of the nephron of
kidney for reabsorption of water.ADH secretion is influenced by osmotic pressure of blood.If
osmotic pressure of blood increases, the secretion of ADH increase from posterior pituitary and
 cause more water reabsorption which results in decrease osmotic pressure. Alcohol inhibit ADH
secretion, thereby alcohol increase urine output. In larger dose ADH also cause vasoconstriction
especially arteries, that is why it also called vasopressin
1. Oxytocin
Oxytocin mainly secreted by paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus.enihsOxytocin, act on
mammary gland and uterus.
(i) Action of oxytocin on mammary gland
Oxytocin release by positive feedback mechanism.Oxytocin increase contraction of myoepithelial
cells of lactating brcast and cause milk ejection (letdowmReflex) in response to mechanical
stimulation provided by suckling infant.bodioett.It is called neuroendocrine reflex.
Sucking of nipple by baby Stimulation of touch receptor of nipple Impulse to
hypothalamus by afferent nerve Stimulation of Posterior pituitary Increased
secretion of oxytocin Increased milk ejection
ii) Action of oxytocin on uterus –Oxytocin causes contraction of uterine muscles and helps in
expulsion of fetus. At the end of pregnancy secretion of estrogen and progesterone decrease and
oxytocin secretion increase. During labor oxytocin released by mean of positive feedback
mechanism. On the non pregnant uterus oxytocin helps in the transport of sperm from vagina to
fallopian tubes.

Thyroid Gland
Thyroid gland is butterfly shaped gland located just inferior to the Larynx (voice box) on either
side of trachea. Thyroid gland has two lobes which connected in the middle by an isthmus.
Weight 30 gm (larger into female) – Largest endocrine gland. Thyroid gland is composed of
larger number of closed follicle. The follicles are lined with cuboidal epithelial cells which called
follicular cells. The follicular cavity is filled with a colloidal substance known as thyroglobulin
which is secreted by the cuboidal epithelial cells.Thyroglobulin contain 140 molecules of amino
acid tyrosine.In between the follicles the parafolicular cells or c (clear) cells are situated,which
secret calcitonin hormone.
Hormones of thyroid -Thyroid gland secrete 3 hormones
 T3 (Triiodothyronine) – 10%
 T4 (Tetraiiodothyronine) or thyroxin – 90%
 Calcitonin
T3 and T4 together called thyroid hormone. lodine is required per week or 150 microgram per
day.when supply of iodine is deficient , excess TSH is secreted which cause ement of gland called
simple goiter.common table salt is iodized with one part of sodium iodine (NaI) with every one
lac part of sodium chloride (NaCL)
Function of thyroid hormone
 T3 and T4 essential for physical growth and mental development.
 T3 &T4 increase basal metabolic rate (BMR), the rate at which cells utilize O 2, when the
body is at rest. Normal Value of BMR are-
o In terms of large calories (Cal), measurement is about 1500 to 1800 per day.
o In terms of body weight, measurement is 1 Cal/kg/hour.
 o In terms of body surface, measurement is 40 Cal/m2/hour.
 T3& T4 increase motility of gastrointestinal tract (peristalsis).
 T3& T4 regulate normal functioning of nervous, reproductive and cardiovascular system.
 T3 & T4 enhance action of adrenaline & nor-adrenaline which cause increase HR and blood
pressure.
Calcitonin
It decreases blood calcium level by inhibiting activity of osteoclast cells into bone.Its effects are opposite
to PTH. Calcitonin secretion stimulated when blood calcium level is increased.

Parathyroid Gland
There are four parathyroid gland, situated immediately behind thyroid gland at the upper and lower poles.
Measurements are 6 x3 x 2 mm.Color – Dark brown Weight – 40mg each gland.
Structure
Each parathyroid gland is made up of chief (principal) cell & oxyphil cell. Chief cells secrete
parathormone or parathyroid hormone (PTH).Functions of oxyphil cells is not known. The secretion of
PTH increases when level of ionized calcium decrease. The main function of PTH is to increase the blood
calcium level (normal level is 9 to l1 mg/dl).
Function of PTH
Our bodies contain about 1100 gm calcium, which is 1.5% of total body weight.
The main function of PTH is to maintain (increase) the blood calcium level in normal range (9-11 mg/
dl),by following actions
o Increased resorption of ca’” from bone by increasing number and activity of osteoclast cells.
o Decreased excretion of calcium from the kidney
o PTH activate vitamin D (1, 25 dihydroxy Vitamin D or 1, 25 dihydroxy cholecalciferol or
calcitriol) into Kidney, and activated vitamin D increased absorption of calcium from the GIT, so
increased absorption of calcium form intestine is indirect function of PTH.

Abnormal secretion of PTH

Decrease secretion of PTH cause hypocalcaemia.Hypocalcaemia cause tetany (intermittent tonic
muscular spasms that typically involve the arms or legs).Characteristic diagnostic signs of tetany
are Trousseau’s sign and Chvostek’s sign. Trousseau’s sign is a muscular spasm of the hand and
wrist resuiting from pressure applicd to nerves and Vessels of the upper am.Chvostek’s sign is a
spasm of facial muscles when taping the facial nerve in the area of parotid glands. Increase
secretion of PTH cause hypercalcenia due to increase resorption (removal) of ca ++ from bones
whichCause bone to become soft and easily fractured.
 Adrenal Gland or Suprarenal Gland

It also called life saving gland or essential endocrine gland. In the absence of these gland deaths occur
within 3-15 days, Situated on the upper pole of cach kidney.Size-4 x 3x l cm. Weight- 4gmIt is made up
by two structurally, functionally and developmentally distinct parts, called adrenal medulla and adrenal
cortex.Medulla is central part and constitutes 20% part of whole gland. Cortex is outer portion which
constitute 80% of whole gland.
A.Adrenal Cortex -Adrenal cortex has three different layers
 Zona glomerulosa- Outermost layer secrete mineralocorticoid, it affect mineral homeostasis.
 Zona fasciculata – middle layer secrete glucocorticoid. It affects glucose homeostasis.
 Zona reticularis – innemost layer which secrete sex hormone (androgen). Collectively these
hormones called corticosteroids or adrenocortical hormone, and it synthesis mainly by
Cholesterol.
1.Mineralocorticoid – Aldosterone is a major mineralocorticoid. Aldosterone is very essential for life so
called life saving homone (total absence cause death within 2-20 Days). It regulate homeostasis of two
important mineral ions of body (Nat and K+) to maintain or regulate bloodVolume and BP (through their
effect on ion transport in epithelial cells of distal convoluted tubules resulting in retention of Na+ and
excretion of K+). It increases reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+ by distal convoluted tubules. It
also excretes H+ from body by urine to prevent acidosis.
Renin -Angiotension -Aldosterone (RAA) System
Decreascd blood volume & BP due to hemorrhage, dehydration & Na+ deficiency.
Juxtaglomerular cells of Kidney secrete renin Angiotension – I (Angiotension converting
enzyme (ACE, Seereted by lungs) Angiotension- II (May lead vasoconstriction that Increased BP)
Increased secretion of aldosterone by adrenal cortex Increased reabsorption of Na & water by distal
convoluted tubules Increased blood volume & blood pressure
2. Glucocorticoid-
Glucocorticoid called lite protective hormone or hormone essential for life because it helps to withstand
us during stress.
Main functions of glucocorticoid –
Regulation of carbohydrate metabolism, like it causes hyperglycemia by decreasing glucose utilization
by Peripheral cells and gluconeogenesis (glucose formation by proteins & fats).Mineral metabolism
(retention of sodium & excretion of potassium). Anti-inflammatory effect by vasoconstriction and
inhibiting migration of WBC to affected site. Anti-allergic action by inhibiting release of histamine.
Immunosuppressive effect by suppression of the lymphoid tissue like lymph node & thymus that cause
decrease number of T- lymphocytes in blood.Delay wound healing due to decrease immunity. Increased
resistance to stress (due to release of amino acid into blood stream for new protein synthesis).
3.Sex hormones-
There are three sex hormone among them androgen (male sex hormone) are secreted more than estrogen
andProgesterone from adrenal cortex. Major androgen secreted by adrenal cortex is
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).Androgens are responsible for masculine features (male-hood like
characteristic) of the body.The excessive secretion of androgen in female cause virilism. Virilism
meansdevelopment or presence. Of male secondary sexual characteristic in female, such as beard,
hirsutism (excessive body hair in women & children), deep voice, enlarged clitoris, atrophy of breast &
increased muscle mass.
(A) Adrenal Medulla –
It is inner part of suprarenal gland and forms 20% of mass of whole adrenal glands.Medulla contains two
types of chromaffin cells or pheochrom cells.
O Adrenaline or epinephrine secreting cells (80%).
O Nor-adrenaline or norepinephrine secreting cells (20%).
Type of cells secreting dopamine is not known.
These hormone secretion regulated by sympathetic neurons of ANS.
2. Nor-adrenaline/ Norepinephrine (also called general vasoconstrictor)
3. Dopamine
OMedullary hormones are collectively called catecholamine.
Adrenaline or nor-adrenaline are helpful in stressful situation by preparing the body to fight & flight
response.During stressful situation sympathetic part of ANS stimulated and cause more release of
catecholamine.
Catecholamine produces following effects into body –
Increased heart rate & force of contraction which cause increased BP. Increased blood flow to skeleton
muscles, heart & liver.Dilation of pupil.Decreased blood flow to digestive & reproductive organs.
Dilation of respiratory tract.Increased blood glucose & fatty acid level.

Pancreatic islets
Pancreas is a both endocrine & exocrine gland.Endocrine function of pancreas is performed by the islets
of Langerhans or Pancreatíc islets.Pancreatic islets contain maínly three types of cells –
1. Alpha.orAcells (1 5%) secrete glucagon.
2. Beta or B-cells (80%) secrete insulin.
3. Delta or D-cells (5%) secrete somatostatin.
Insulin –
Secretion of insulin increase when blood glucose and arnino acid levels are high in blood.Main function
of insulin is to decrease blood glucose level by following ways - Inerease up take and utilization of
glucose by body cells.Increase conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis) especially in liver and
skeleton muscles, the body can store about 500 gm of glycogen (75% into skeleton muscle and 25% into
liver cells).Increase protein and fat synthesis (lipogenesis) from amino acids and fatty acids respectively.
Decrease process of gluconeogenesis (the formation of glucose from excess amíno acids, fats or other
non-Carbohydrate sources).Any homone that opposes the effects of insulin called counter-regulatory
hormone, examples of these hormone are glucagon, epinephrine, norepinephrine, corisol and growth
hormone .Secretion of these hormone increases during hypoglycemia and stressful time, and cause
increase blood glucose Level.
Glucagon –
Glucagon increase blood glucose level by- Conversion of store glycogen to glucose
(glycogenolysis).Increase process of gluconeogenesis.
Somatostatin –
It is also produced by hypothalamus and stomach. It inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon from
pancreas, growth hormone from the anterior pituitary and gastrin from the stomach.
Pineal gland or Epiphysis gland
Situated under the brain & above the hypothalamus behind 3rd ventricle.
Weight – 0.1 to 0.2gm Length – lcm
A peptide hormone, melatonin produced by the pineal gland.It influences sleep-wake cycles and other
circadian rhythms.It also promotes sleepiness and inhibits reproductory function till puberty.Gland
becomes atrophy after puberty.
Thymus gland
It a lymphoid organ located in the mediastinal cavity anterior and above to the heart.It composed of two
fused lobes, cach containing multiple lobules. Lobules divided into an outer cortex and inner medulla.The
thymus is the primary site for T-lymphocyte differentiation.Two hormones are secreted by thymus are
thymosin & thymin (thymopoietin).Thynosin hommone promote the maturation of T-lymphocyte.Thymin
(thymopoietin) inhibit acetylcholine release which cause myasthenia gravis.Removal of the thymus in an
adult does not cause the decrease in immune function.

Heart
Msceulatures of atria of heart secrete atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) during increase BP.It Lowers blood
pressure by increase excretion of Na’ & water through urine and also by vasodilatation.